Ansell & Dowsett (1988) stated that in the past, rhinos were found virtually throughout Malawi.
Two black rhinos (Diceros bicornis minor) from Kruger National Park, South Africa, were introduced to Liwonde National Park in Malawi on 27 October 1993. This marked the re-introduction of the species to Malawi where it had been officially declared extinct in 1990.
reintroduction from Kruger NP. Two black rhinos (Diceros bicornis minor) from Kruger National Park, South Africa, were introduced to Liwonde National Park in Malawi on 27 October 1993. The introduced rhinos are a male and a female, each about five or six years old at the time of translocation. When they were captured in Kruger, they were kept in bomas, before being brought to Liwonde, where they were again kept in bomas for one-and-a-half months. They were released into a 1,500ha sanctuary with an electrified game fence. They will remain in the sanctuary until their security can be assured in the area of the Park. The rhinos were released from the bomas in Liwonde on 21 and 22 December 1993. After an initial period of being solitary, they were first seen together on 16 January 1994 and have remained together ever since. Their movements are illustrated in Figure 3, and can be described as follows: January- March (after release from the bomas) They walked frequently up and down the sides of the Ntangai River and its two major tributaries. They were often seen resting in the southern section near the bomas. Their range averaged approximately 4 kmy. April- June They were always seen together. Their activities were concentrated in the south-east and sometimes in the central area of the sanctuary. Their movements up and down the river banks continued and their range averaged at 3.5-4 kmy. July- September At the end of July all the natural water pools dried up. The rhinos moved in the same general pattern as in the previous three months. There were no signs of the rhinos drinking at the artificial water hole throughout this period. They knocked down and fed on Euphorbia ingens in the western area of the sanctuary. October-December Most of the rhinos' activity was concentrated along the Ntangai River. They were seen occasionally in the south and north of the sanctuary. They continued to knock down large numbers of E. ingens. Discussion While the two rhinos in Liwonde were able to survive comfortably throughout the long dry season, presumably due to feeding on succulent plants, this does pose a problem for any future rhino introductions into the sanctuary. Artificial water holes will be needed if the succulent plants become too few.
The last natural rhino populations in Malawi occurred in Kasungu National Park and Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve, as shown on the map in Figure 1. The most recent signs of these populations were recorded in 1985 and 1989 respectively.
Two black rhinos (Diceros bicornis minor) from Kruger National Park, South Africa, were introduced to Liwonde National Park in Malawi on 27 October 1993. This marked the re-introduction of the species to Malawi where it had been officially declared extinct in 1990.
Reintroduced Diceros bicornis in Malawi. Vegetation mapping at Liwonde NP After identifying the sanctuary site, the area was fenced off and bomas were constructed in readiness for the rhinos. The sanctuary site was located from aerial photographs taken in May 1981 at a scale of 1:25,000. Units of vegetation which appeared to be homogenous from the photographs were marked and mapped and their area was estimated. Each unit was then checked on the ground in terms of its general structure and flora. Plant species eaten by the rhinos The plant species eaten by the rhinos were recorded by observing the rhinos feeding while they were in the bomas, and by checking for damage of the plants along the rhino tracks after their release into the sanctuary. Rhino browse characteristics are quite distinctive and are unlikely to be confused with other browser signs in the sanctuary, such as those of the kudu or impala. Feeding observations were also divided into threemonthly records in order to detect plant species eaten throughout the year as well as seasonal differences. Plant species eaten There are 40 species of woody plants from 18 families which have so far been selected by the rhinos, as listed in Table 2. Woody species which were eaten throughout the year were A. nigrescens, A. sp., C. mopane, Combretum fragrans, E. ingens and Ziziphus mucronata. In the drier half of the year, D. melanoxylon was eaten in large quantities. Table 2. Plant species eaten by rhinos in the sanctuary during their first year in Liwonde, in four periods: January to March (J-M), April to June (A-J), July to September (J-S) and October to December (O-D). The list for J-M includes plants which were eaten in the Liwonde bomas. Plant species eaten Period of year J-M A-J J-S O-D Annonaceae Anisotes formosissimus + Cleistochlamys kirkii + + Friesodielsia obovata + Asclepiadaceae Fockea Multiflora + Apolynaceae Stophanthus nicholsonii + Burseraceae Commiphora africana + Caesalpinoideae Cassia abbreviala + Colophosospermum mopane + + + + Capparanceae Capparis tomentosa + Thilachium africanum + Combretaceae Combretum apiculatum + Combretum fragrans + + + + Combretum imberbe + + Combretum mossambicense + Terminalia stenostachya + Euphorbiaceae Croton gratissimus + Croton megalobotrys + + Euphorphia ingens + + + + Phyllanthus reticulatus + Malvaceae Azanza garckeana + + Mimosaceae Acacoa sp. + + + + Acacia nigrescens + + + + Acacia polyacantha + Acacia xanthophloea + Albizia anthemintica + Fabaceae Dalbergia boehmii + Dalbergia melanoxylon + + Lonchocarpus capassa + Melletia usaramensis + Pericopsis angolensis + + Rhamnaccae Ziziphus mucronata + + + + Rubiaceace Canthium frangula + Crossopteryx febrifuga + Xeromphis obovata + Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica + Sapindaceae Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius + Solanacae Solanum incanum + Tiliaceae Grewia bicolor + Grewia monticola + Grewia stolzii + Discussion Although 40 species of plants are listed as being eaten by the rhinos, the number will probably increase substantially, particularly when herbacious species are recorded and when observations intensify. Smithers (1983) stated that over 200 plant species are eaten by the black rhino, while Goddard (1970) recorded 102 species eaten in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. However, Emslie & Adcock (1994) found that only a few woody species (about ten) account for the bulk of black rhino's diet. In Liwonde, six 'key' species were utilised throughout the year, namely C. mopane, Acacia nigrescens, A. sp., E. ingens, C. fragrans and Z mucronata Emslie & Adcock (1994) noted that plants with a high moisture content, such as leguminous plants and species in the Euphorbiaceae family, are important dietary items for black rhinos. Both Goddard (1968) and Loutit et al (1987) specified that the Euphorbia was an important food item and that Euphorbia species, along with other succulent plant species, provide rhinos with water in the absence of free water. These findings seem consistent with those of the Liwonde sanctuary study from which it was noted that ten leguminous species, four Euphorbia species and one species each from the Asclepiadaceac and Apolynaceae families, were among the list of browsed species. We believe that E. ingens played an important role in providing moisture during the late dry season in 1994. This woody plant is filled with a white latex fluid which is toxic to some animals but does not seem to harm the rhino. The rhinos began to feed on the E ingens very soon after their release from the boma and have caused major destruction of the species over the last 16 months. In the western half of the sanctuary, where E. ingens is very common, all the E. ingens less than 17cm in diameter in the monitoring plots have been destroyed. The feeding is wasteful, as the rhinos usually push the plants over and feed on the stems lying on the ground. Plants over 20 cm in basal diameter are probably safe from being pushed over. There was a noticeable increase in the amount of woody parts from Euphorbia species found in rhino dung in the late dry season. Fockea multiflora, a large, latex-filled liana, also showed signs of being fed upon heavily as the dry season progressed in 1994. Some of these plants have had most of their basal stems eaten away by rhinos. However, none of them has died so far due to damage. Hall-Martin et al. (1982) reported that F. edulis was eaten by rhinos in Addo National Park, South Africa.
The last natural rhino populations in Malawi occurred in Kasungu National Park and Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve, as shown on the map in Figure 1. The most recent signs of these populations were recorded in 1985 and 1989 respectively.
Liwonde National Park (548 kmy) is located in the Upper Shire Valley, which is part of the Great East African Rift Valley in southern Malawi. The terrain of the Park is generally flat except for three isolated groups of hills. The Shire River is a prominent feature along the western boundary. The full width of the river, with its riparian habitat on both sides, forms part of the Park for a stretch of over 40 km, as seen in Figure 1. The main vegetation type in the Park is Colophospermum mopane woodland, which occupies about 70% of the total area of the Park. Other vegetation types are mixed woodland on the hills, floodplain, grassland and riverine forests/ thickets, drought deciduous forest thickets and mixed woodlands on the hills, all of which occupy minor areas. For a detailed account of the flora and plant communities, the reader is referred to Dudley (1994). The Park has a variety of mammals, of which the elephant and the hippopotamus are the keystone species. Other common species include the waterbuck, sable antelope, impala, kudu and warthog. The rhino sanctuary is located in an area predominated by mopane woodland, with a variety of other species such as Dalbergia melanoxylon, Albizia anthelmentica and A. harveyi. The Ntangai River cuts through the middle of the sanctuary with a border of riverine forest /thicket, characterised by tall trees such as Terminalia zambesiaca, Cordyla africana, Khaya nyasica and Diospyros mespiliformis, with an understorey of Friesodeilsia obovata, Markhamia and Diospyros spp. The savanna of the river's floodplain supports a vanety of tall grasses (1.5 - 2.5m) which include Digitaria milanjiana, Hyparrhenia filipendula, Panicum maximum, Setaria sphacelata and Sorghastrum bipennatum as well as scattered, large trees (15 - 25m) such as Acacia nigrescens, Scleroca a birrea and Xeroderris stuhlmannii. The climate is characterised by a dry season from April to October and a rainy season from November to March. According to records from the Park's weather station at Chiunguni, annual rainfall ranges from 700 to 1.400 mm. Mean minimum temperatures range from 12C in July to 28C in November, with mean maximum temperatures of 20C to 40C for the same months. The first year the rhinos were in the Park (1994) was very dry, with a total recorded rainfall of only 639mm (unpublished meteorogical data). All natural water pools had dried up by mid-July, 1994. However, an artificial water hole was maintained near the boma throughout the year.
old records. For the area which is now Liwonde National Park, Dudley & Stead (1977) reported that the most pertinent record of rhinos was that of Murray (1922) which said that 'rhinoceros would occasionally be tracked to the Masanje River'.
From Kruger to Malawi - Diceros bicornis. Rhino behaviour in the bomas After their capture in Kruger, the rhinos were kept in bomas to minimise stress and to ensure that they were well adapted before translocation to Liwonde. On arrival in Liwonde, they were again kept in bomas wnere they were observed. In both places, observations were made at 07.00 hours, on body condition, health and behaviour. The results from Kruger and Liwonde were compared using the chi-squared test for significance. While in the bomas, the rhinos were offered branches of different plants as food. The species which were eaten were recorded. Observations in the bomas At Kruger, the male rhino was watched for 18 days while the female, who was captured a few days after the male, was observed for 11 days. At Liwonde, both rhinos were observed for 47 days in the boma (27 October - 22 December 1993). There was no statistically significant difference in posture recordings (time spent standing or lying down) between Kruger and Liwonde for either animal. There was a statistically significant difference in the behaviour of the female in the two sites (X2=11.51. df=3, p<0.1). She was calmer in Liwonde than at Kruger. The male, however, was calm and alert at both sites. Neither of the animals was aggressive or depressed. The general body condition of the male (as observed from the rib region) improved significantly in Liwonde (X2=9.1, df=2, p<0.1). All other conditions (defaecation, urination, appetite) appeared normal at both sites and were not tested statistically. There was no sign of reproductive behaviour. Observations in the bomas indicated that the rhinos were well adapted to the Liwonde environment by the time they were released into the sanctuary. The lack of reproductive signs was expected because the animals had not yet reached sexual maturuty. Most researchers agree that sexual maturity in the black rhino is attained at about seven years of age for females and eight years in bulls (Bertschinger, 1994). The two rhinos in Liwonde are now sexually mature and the female shows signs of being pregnant.
Reintroduced Diceros bicornis in Malawi. Vegetation mapping at Liwonde NP After identifying the sanctuary site, the area was fenced off and bomas were constructed in readiness for the rhinos. The sanctuary site was located from aerial photographs taken in May 1981 at a scale of 1:25,000. Units of vegetation which appeared to be homogenous from the photographs were marked and mapped and their area was estimated. Each unit was then checked on the ground in terms of its general structure and flora. Plant species eaten by the rhinos The plant species eaten by the rhinos were recorded by observing the rhinos feeding while they were in the bomas, and by checking for damage of the plants along the rhino tracks after their release into the sanctuary. Rhino browse characteristics are quite distinctive and are unlikely to be confused with other browser signs in the sanctuary, such as those of the kudu or impala. Feeding observations were also divided into threemonthly records in order to detect plant species eaten throughout the year as well as seasonal differences. Plant species eaten There are 40 species of woody plants from 18 families which have so far been selected by the rhinos, as listed in Table 2. Woody species which were eaten throughout the year were A. nigrescens, A. sp., C. mopane, Combretum fragrans, E. ingens and Ziziphus mucronata. In the drier half of the year, D. melanoxylon was eaten in large quantities. Table 2. Plant species eaten by rhinos in the sanctuary during their first year in Liwonde, in four periods: January to March (J-M), April to June (A-J), July to September (J-S) and October to December (O-D). The list for J-M includes plants which were eaten in the Liwonde bomas. Plant species eaten Period of year J-M A-J J-S O-D Annonaceae Anisotes formosissimus + Cleistochlamys kirkii + + Friesodielsia obovata + Asclepiadaceae Fockea Multiflora + Apolynaceae Stophanthus nicholsonii + Burseraceae Commiphora africana + Caesalpinoideae Cassia abbreviala + Colophosospermum mopane + + + + Capparanceae Capparis tomentosa + Thilachium africanum + Combretaceae Combretum apiculatum + Combretum fragrans + + + + Combretum imberbe + + Combretum mossambicense + Terminalia stenostachya + Euphorbiaceae Croton gratissimus + Croton megalobotrys + + Euphorphia ingens + + + + Phyllanthus reticulatus + Malvaceae Azanza garckeana + + Mimosaceae Acacoa sp. + + + + Acacia nigrescens + + + + Acacia polyacantha + Acacia xanthophloea + Albizia anthemintica + Fabaceae Dalbergia boehmii + Dalbergia melanoxylon + + Lonchocarpus capassa + Melletia usaramensis + Pericopsis angolensis + + Rhamnaccae Ziziphus mucronata + + + + Rubiaceace Canthium frangula + Crossopteryx febrifuga + Xeromphis obovata + Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica + Sapindaceae Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius + Solanacae Solanum incanum + Tiliaceae Grewia bicolor + Grewia monticola + Grewia stolzii + Discussion Although 40 species of plants are listed as being eaten by the rhinos, the number will probably increase substantially, particularly when herbacious species are recorded and when observations intensify. Smithers (1983) stated that over 200 plant species are eaten by the black rhino, while Goddard (1970) recorded 102 species eaten in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. However, Emslie & Adcock (1994) found that only a few woody species (about ten) account for the bulk of black rhino's diet. In Liwonde, six 'key' species were utilised throughout the year, namely C. mopane, Acacia nigrescens, A. sp., E. ingens, C. fragrans and Z mucronata Emslie & Adcock (1994) noted that plants with a high moisture content, such as leguminous plants and species in the Euphorbiaceae family, are important dietary items for black rhinos. Both Goddard (1968) and Loutit et al (1987) specified that the Euphorbia was an important food item and that Euphorbia species, along with other succulent plant species, provide rhinos with water in the absence of free water. These findings seem consistent with those of the Liwonde sanctuary study from which it was noted that ten leguminous species, four Euphorbia species and one species each from the Asclepiadaceac and Apolynaceae families, were among the list of browsed species. We believe that E. ingens played an important role in providing moisture during the late dry season in 1994. This woody plant is filled with a white latex fluid which is toxic to some animals but does not seem to harm the rhino. The rhinos began to feed on the E ingens very soon after their release from the boma and have caused major destruction of the species over the last 16 months. In the western half of the sanctuary, where E. ingens is very common, all the E. ingens less than 17cm in diameter in the monitoring plots have been destroyed. The feeding is wasteful, as the rhinos usually push the plants over and feed on the stems lying on the ground. Plants over 20 cm in basal diameter are probably safe from being pushed over. There was a noticeable increase in the amount of woody parts from Euphorbia species found in rhino dung in the late dry season. Fockea multiflora, a large, latex-filled liana, also showed signs of being fed upon heavily as the dry season progressed in 1994. Some of these plants have had most of their basal stems eaten away by rhinos. However, none of them has died so far due to damage. Hall-Martin et al. (1982) reported that F. edulis was eaten by rhinos in Addo National Park, South Africa.
Reintroduced Diceros bicornis in Malawi The initial movements of the rhinos after their release from the bomas seemed to be exploratory. They may have been looking for the most suitable habitat. Their average range of approximately 4 km? is similar to that of rhinos in Hluhluwe (1.7-4.2 km?) and Andries Vosloo (0.5-2.0 km?) in South Africa (Adcock, 1994).
