1920's, 200, including Patlakhawa reserve, later appended to Jaldapara.
1976, Declared national park, Area 8.52 kmy.
1993, Area extended to 9.6 kmy
Area was 100.98 kmy
1920-30, most rhinos lost due to hunting, habitat loss and flood damage, at least 100 died.
80
1993, 34
Poached 1994, 2
Poaching 1992, 1
Poaching 1993, 1
40-50, cf. Fawcus 1943
1935-36, good number, cf. Annual Report of Game Preservation
8
Natural deaths, 1940-1, 2
5
40
65
80
1080
1125
15
40
15
366
Deaths in 1988 A bad flood accounted for nearly half of the 105 natural deaths
1977, 75, pers.comm. Deb Roy
1966, 15
1986, 75-80, comm. Forest Department
1976, 40
Deaths in 1980, 58
Deaths in 1981, 39
Deaths in 1982, 48
Deaths in 1983, 46
Deaths in 1989, 54
Deaths in 1990, 57
Deaths in 1991, 79
Deaths in 1992, 66
Deaths in 1993, 58
1972, 658
1908, January: An area of 22,617 hectares (226.17 kmy) was declared as Kaziranga Reserved Forest.
1995, 12-30, comm. Forest Department.
Natural mortality 1990, 2
Natural mortality 1989, 1
Natural mortality 1987, 0
Natural deaths, 1982, 0
Natural deaths, 1983, 3
1971, Two grazing reserves covering an area of 1584.62 ha (15.85 kmy) were constituted into a Reserved Forest.
Natural deaths, 1984, 4
Natural deaths, 1986, 1
Natural deaths, 1987, 1
Natural deaths, 1988, 0
1989, 85, comm. Forest Department
1990, 85-100, comm. Forest Department
4, migrated from Nepal.
1967-68, 76
18
40
Poached 1986, 0
Poached 1990, 2
90
Poaching 1991, 1
Poaching 1986, 0
15
15
1995, 35
Poached 1995, 2
34
60
65
100
25
1164
1334
1936-37, 56, cf. Annual Report of Game Preservation
1953-54, 30-56, cf. Annual Report of Game Preservation
1948, ca.60, cf. Shebbeare & Roy
Poached 1980, 1
Poaching 1982, 3
1991, 5 October, last rhinoceros seen
1989, 27
54
56
68
1992, 33
25-30
Map showing 17 camps.
1988, 24
1981, 22
1986, 14
1200
12
4
13
unknown
18
35
20
68
90
12
1504
12
12
25
Poached in 1969, 0
Poached in 1971, 1
Poached in 1967, 0
Poached in 1962, 1
Poached in 1963, 1
Poached in 1970, 0
Poached in 1986, 45
Poached in 1987, 23
Poached in 1988, 24
1995, Area extended by 69.85 kmy to make 79.45 kmy
Poaching 1954-55, 1
Poached 1991, 1
Poached 1990, 3
Poached 1989, 0
Poached in 1965, 1
Poaching 1981, 2
Poached in 1973, 0
Poaching 1983, 1
1976, Area extended by 115.53 kmy, total 216.51 kmy
Poached 1985, 2
Poaching 1985, 0
Poaching 1986, 0
Poaching 1987, 0
Poaching 1988, 0
Poaching 1989, 0
Poaching 1990, 1
Poaching 1984, 2
1928, Manas with 391 kmy declared a Sanctuary.
Area was 391 kmy in 1928, 500 kmy in 1990 90 50'E, 26 40' N, 176 km north-west of Gauhati. The park forms a linear west-east strip and falls within the districts of Barpetta and Kokrajhar in Assam. The eastern boundary is the Alabari River, the western boundary the Sukanjan River. The northern demarcation is the international boundary with Bhutan, the southern boundary is formed by a forest road. The park is divided in three ranges: Bansbari, Bhuyanpari and Panbari.
Nepal. which has reported a very low poaching rate of its rhinos, also records the 1982-86 poaching period as having been the worst recently, 11 of the 38 rhinoceroses poached between 1973 and 1990 taken during that time. The country also records a resurgence in poaching in the early 1990s, with 1990 marking a loss of 7 rhinos, the highest number lost in a year since 1973. These findings further strengthen the hypothesis of there having been two principal waves of poaching affecting the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros.
400
15
1992, 80, comm. Forest Department
1995, 1200
Map
Map
Map of protected areas in Assam and Bengal.
Map
1984, 1080
1991, 1129
1993, 30-60, comm. Forest Department.
Deaths in 1984, 50
Deaths in 1985, 37
Deaths in 1986, 38
Deaths in 1987, 41
Deaths in 1988, 105
1993, 1164
1978, 939.
65
97
about 100
40
32
25
ca.40
A few itinerant rhinos may still make use of old connections between Kochmara and Orang or even Kaziranga 80 km further east, but this seems unlikely as most of the corridors have become inhabited by humans .
Poached 1987, 2
Poached in 1986, 1
Poached in 1987, 7
Poached in 1988, 1
Poached in 1989, 6
Poached in 1990, 2
Poached in 1991, 3
Poached in 1992, 11
Poached in 1993, 22
Poached in 1983, 3
Map
During 1930 a large number of rhinoceroses were destroyed by poachers in the North Kanrup, Manus, and Ripu Game Sanctuaries and Forest Reserves. This number is estimated at about 90 to 100, and the people responsible for this terrible slaughter are mostly Kacharis and Assamese living on the borders of the Reserves. If we estimate the loss to Government by the destruction of these beasts it would work out into lakhs of rupees.
Poached in 1991, 23
Poaching 1992, 1
Poached in 1990, 35
Poached in 1966, 0
The park lies between 26.30 and 26.45 N and 93.5 and 93.40 E, spread over parts of Golaghat, Naogaon and Sonitpur Districts in Assam.
Map
Poaching 1985, 2
Poached in 1980, 11
Manas National Park has 43 guard camps and equipment includes around 200 arms and 30 wireless sets. However, a recent survey by the author found only 19 of the 43 camps in Manas manned, the remainder abandoned because of the threat from Bodo rebels. Of the manned camps, 13 are in Bansbari Range and 3 each in Bhuiyanpara and Panbari Ranges. Of the 13 in Bansbari, six camps do not undertake patrols, and according to official sources, none occurs in the other two ranges either. Effective camp strength within in Manas is probably therefore in the order of six. Several camps visited in Bansbari had no arms and wireless sets, these having been withdrawn to deter militants from raiding camps with the aim of stealing such equipment.
Poaching 1984, 7
Poaching 1985, 8
Poaching 1986, 3
1958, Area of forest 63 kmy
Poaching 1990, 0
Poaching 1989, 0
Poaching 1988, 0
Poaching 1987, 0
12
1972-73, 21
Poached in 1993, 40
Poached in 1992, 49
30
40
960
580
5
50
1913, Area is enlarged by 54 kmy.
Natural mortality 1988, 5
Poached in 1984, 28
Poached in 1983, 37
Of poached rhinos 1987-1993, 63% were shot, 21% electrcuted. Pabitora is where electrocution was first used by poachers, facilitated by two high tension wires that run through the park. 11% were poisoned, 5% died in pits.
Poached 1993, 4
Until 1896 a sum of Rs20 was paid by the Government of West Bengal for every rhino killed. Officially abolished in 1910.
Park Headquarters are in Bokakhat, and there are 4 range offices at Agaratoli, Kohora, Baguri and Burrhapahar. Kaziranga is bound on the northern side by the Brahmaputra River, on the southern side by National Highway 37. Two tributaries of the Brahmaputra, the Jiya Difloo and the Mora Difloo flow through the park.
Poaching 1991, 0
1974, The park area was made a part of the 2837 kmy under 'Project Tiger', which was declared a United nations World Heritage Site in 1984.
Natural mortality 1992, 2
Natural mortality 1991, 2
Natural mortality 1990, 1
6
40
52
1512
Poaching 1968-72, 4
Poached in 1985, 1
Poached in 1974, 0
Poached in 1975, 0
Poached in 1976, 4
Poached in 1977, 0
Poached in 1984, 4
Poached in 1985, 44
Poaching 1950-51, 0
Poaching 1952, 0
Poaching 1993, 0
Poached 1982, 9
Poached 1983, 41
Poaching 1992, 1
Poached 1981, 5
Poaching 1981, 1
Poached 1988, 0
Poached 1987, 0
Poached 1986, 1
Poaching 1984, 1
Poached 1984, 5
Poaching 1955-56, 2
Poaching 1968-72, 28
Poaching 1932, 40-50
Poaching 1980, 2
Located in the flood plains of the Torsa and Malangi Rivers in West Bengal, 89.30 E, 26.40 N.
Straying of rhinos to outside grazing lands and the resultant conflicts with villagers. Until 1993, this was a regular occurrence leading to 9% of rhinos from Pabitora being taken outside sanctuary. Innovative measures taken in 1993-95 have reduced straying, mainly due to increased availibility of grass within the park. A major problem for the park is grazing. A large number of cattle depend on the sanctuary and its peripheries for grazing, which is so intensive that grasses inside the sanctuary are stunted. An area of 1 kmy was fenced during 1990 in anticipation of an re-introduction project of Thamin Cervus eldi which resulted in a profuse regeneration of Albizia procera and better growth of grasses inside the enclosure.
Natural deaths, 1954, 3
Natural deaths, 1955-56, 2
Declared as a protected area
1916, November, declared as a Game Sanctuary.
1911, the area is enlarged by 3.5 kmy.
Gorumara lies 80 km to the west of Jaldapara, at the junction of the Jaldakha and Murti Rivers, 89.00 E, 26.40 N.
Poaching 1981, 1
1977, Feb 1, establishment of Dudhwa National Park, with area of 490 kmy
Poached in 1989, 44
Poached in 1964, 0
1987-88, shows a respite from poaching, which may be attributed to the floods and subsequent inaccessibility of the area
Poached in 1968, 0
Poached in 1972, 0
Poached in 1982, 25
Poaching 1983, 1
A major anti-poaching offensive was launched in 1968 after a poacher killed a park guard. From 1969 to 1978, according to official statistics, 4 poachers were killed by forest guards and several others were wounded. Anti-poaching operations in Kaziranga, 1991-1993 02.02.91 A rhinoceros was shot by poachers at Daflong area. In the encounter by the patrolling staff the horn was retrieved. 17.02.91 A rhinoceros was shot at by poachers at Bherbheri area. In the encounter the horn was recovered and the poachers fled. 05.03.91 At Borakata an encounter took place with poachers who had shot a rhinoceros. Consequently the horn was recovered. 10.04.91 Near Bandarkhal an encounter took place with the poachers, who had fled leaving behind a rhinoceros horn. Subsequently, a raid was conducted and four persons were arrested. 22.04.91 Near Sahaduba a rhinoceros was killed. An encounter took place with the patrolling staff and the poachers were cordoned inside the park. 23.04.91 An encounter with the same poachers (22.4.9 1) by the staff took place. Consequently two of the Naga poachers got killed : their bodies were recovered on 24th and 25th April. 24.04.91 Two poachers were apprehended in the raids conducted at Daogaon. 03.05.91 An encounter took place with the poachers by the staff of Daldhibari. Consequently one poacher was killed while one DBBL shotgun and ammunition was recovered. No rhinoceros was killed. 17.08.91 Two rounds of gunshot were heard at Maloni area. The staff on patrolling were immediately alerted. No rhinoceros was killed, while the poachers fled. 28.08.91 An encounter of patrolling staff with armed poachers occurred about 8.30 p.m. at Kanchanjuri. Consequently, one poacher succumbed to his injury and another fled with heavy injury. One DBBL .470 rifle and one DBBL shotgun with ammunition were recovered. No casualty to staff and rhinoceros occurred. 28.10.91 An encounter with miscreants near Naste camp resulted in three persons bein- apprehended while others fled. The apprehended persons were handed over to the police. Subsequently, a rhinoceros carcass was detected with horn missina under Kartika camp. 14.04.92 An encounter with the staff took place at Sesonimukh area under western range and two poachers were killed. May/92 A raid was conducted at Daogaon under Kaziranga Range and three persons, including one telecoms engineers were arrested and one silencer with .303 rifle recovered as well as 17 live rounds. 20.06.92 An encounter with the staff took place at Bagmari area under Kaziranga Range and one poacher was killed and one Italian-made rifle recovered. 20.08.92 An encounter with the staff took place at Rowmafi nallah under western range and one poacher was killed. 9.10.92 A raid was conducted at Dolamara area and arms were recovered from the poachers. During the raid an encounter took place. Consequently, one person (Naga) was killed, one injured, and two persons were arrested. 18.11.92 A encounter took place with the staff at Afimora area under Kaziranaa Ranue and one poacher was killed while one rifle of.303 bore was recovered. 12.12.92 A raid was conducted at Jyosipur village near Bokakhat and two .303 rifles were recovered and five persons were arrested. 21.12.92 An encounter took place at Naste under Kaziranga Range and one poacher was killed. 18.01.93 An encounter with the patrolling staff took place at Sesoni under Murkhowa camp (western range) and one poacher was killed. 05.02.93 An encounter with the patrolling staff took place in between Sitalmari and Kartika camp under Kaziranga Range and one poacher was killed. 23.02.93 A raid was conducted at Borbetagaon near Bokakhat and two persons were arrested including one Naga. One .303 rifle and 14 live bullets were recovered. 26.03.93 An encounter with the patrolling staff took place at Tinibeel Tinali under eastern range and one known notorious poacher was killed. The number of persons arrested in rhinoceros poaching cases by staff of Kaziranga National Park and the arms recovered from them illustrate the scale and tenacity of the poaching problem. According to official sources, nine poachers were killed during 1992 and three during 1993, while 79 were arrested during this period, making it one of the highest anti-poaching efforts by the staff. Moreover, 10 of the 66 rhinoceroses poached durina this time were detected in time to salvage the horn, or the horn was recovered soon afterwards.
Poached in 1981, 24
Poaching 1980-1991, 43 rhinos poached, and 47 natural deaths
Poaching 1991, 1
Poaching 1982, 6
Poaching 1983, 10
Poaching 1987, 1
Poaching 1988, 4
Poaching 1989, 3
Poaching 1990, 0
1930-1931, 50
Rhinos poached 1972-1992, 45% were shot, 38% killed by pit poaching, none electrocuted, but few poisoning cases have been detected (2%).
Poaching 1972-73, 6
1980-83, no poaching according to official records
Poached 1985, 2
Poached 1992, 3
Poached 1991, 1
Poached 1984, 4
Poached 1989, 4
Poached 1988, 3
Poached in 1978, 1
Poached in 1979, 0
Poached in 1980, 0
Poached in 1981, 2
Poached in 1982, 1
Natural deaths, 1931, 0
Natural mortality 1992, 2
Natural mortality 1991, 1
Natural mortality 1986, ?
Natural mortality 1985, ?
Natural mortality 1984, ?
Natural deaths, 1935-6, 1
Natural deaths, 1936-7, 1
Natural deaths, 1950-51, 1
The Bengal Rhinoceros Preservation Act was passed.
The National Park occupies 443 km?
1917, Area is enlarged by 150.11 kmy.
1967, Area enlarged by 0.6 kmy, to make 430 kmy.
1950, declared a Wildlife Sanctuary.
The watercourses bring about an annual submergence of parts of the park, which in particularly wet years assumes flood proportions. Apart from flushing out the waterways and maintaining a check on invasive Water Hyacinth Eichornis crassipes, the submergence helps to maintain the unique grasslands of the park, which make it such a suitable habitat for large herbivores.
1990, Declared a National Park.
Today it is a Schedule I offence of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 that invites a maximum sentence of three to six years alone with a penalty of Rs25 000 (about US$770).
Classes of protected area related to rhinoceros conservation in India. Unclassed Forest - Unprotected forest lands belonging to the State or to the people. Reserved Forest - Protected forest owned by the State. It receives the lowest levels of protection and permits can be given out for tree felling, grazing, fishing, etc. However, once declared a reserved forest, land cannot be diverted for non-forest purposes. Wildlife Sanctuary - The notification of an area as a wildlife sanctuary (earlier called a game sanctuary) gives it a higher level of protection than a reserved forest. There is restriction on entry into a sanctuary and a permit is required for grazing, fishing, etc. These are given only to local villagers, who depended on the land for these activities. National park - The highest level of protection that a reserve is afforded for its ecological value. No tersspass or utilization of resources is permitted within a national park. The strictest penalties are levied if any offence is committed within a national park. Tiger Reserve - This could be a sanctuary or a national park, and in most cases includes areas of each. It is an erea demarcated as falling within the administrative purview of Project Tiger, India's tiger conservation program in place since 1973.
Natural mortality 1994, 1
Natural mortality 1993, 1
Rhino vanished from Rajmahal Hills by 1850.
In the early 1980s the prison sentence for killing a rhinoceros was increased from three to six months.
in Naogaon District, Assam, situated on the southern bank of the Brahmaputra River and about 30 km from Naogaon town.
Natural deaths, 1986, 1
Map
Located 50 km east of Guwahati on southern bank of Brahmaputra River, in Morigaon District, Assam. It covers about 16 kmy . The sanctuary occupies a basin-like structure surrounded by the Mayong, Kamarpur and Monoha Hills.
Natural mortality 1986, 1
1987, Five additional areas of 3883.78 ha (38.84 kmy) were made part of the reserve. It was declared as Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary.
Natural mortality 1987, 3
1915, Declared Orang Game Reserve of 8054 ha. or 80.54 kmy
Natural deaths 1990, 2
Natural deaths 1989, 1
Natural deaths 1988, 1
Natural deaths 1987, 3
Natural deaths 1986, 1
Natural deaths 1985, 0
Natural deaths 1984, 0
Natural deaths 1983, 6
The sharp fall in rhinoceros numbers from 1987 may be attributed to the start of civil unrest and the Bodoland agitation. Attacks were launched on park range headquarters and other locations, which caused severe injury of a park range officer and the loss of 22 rifles, 9 rhino horns and cash. Further, the home of the Divisional Forest Officer was bombed in March 1994, while park buildings have been periodically burnt down. All rhinoceroses killed between 1990 and 1994 have been shot rather than trapped or electrocuted, and it is reported that as many as 18 of the 20 rhinoceroses poached in 1993 were killed during the hospitalisation of the wounded range officer. However, the low morale of park staff as a result of their fear for their safety has resulted in their withdrawal from most camps in the park.
1964, All forestry operations in the area, carried out in 1940's and 1950's were all stopped.
1974, declared a National Park under the relevant provision in the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.
1983-84, most rhinos were poached during the AASU uprising in Assam.
The soil of the alluvial plains is moist with a light texture and sandy loam. Woodland covers almsot 40% of the area, grasslands 30% and wetland 30%. Large expanses of short grassland, rough Zizyphys and Tamarix scrub, Bombax ceiba and Albizia procera tree plantations, with low sparse undergrowth give way to Typha and Arundo reeds alongside beels. Several of these beels, such as Rowmari, Lathimari, Sonaikuchi, add to the water availibility of the region. The tropical climate brings rain from May to July which can cause the whole sanctuary to be submerged with water for several days at a time.
1979, 12 September, named Laokhawa Wildlife Sanctuary.
1972, 28 January. Declared a Reserved Forest, Area of 70.14 kmy. This decalration was never supported in law, following a court case filed in 1978 by the Rupahi Union Co-operative Fishery and Farming Society in protest at the withdrawal of rights to cultivate parts of Laohawa land.
In fact 65% of Kaziranga is covered by wet, alluvial grasslands (especially in the Kohora and Baguri ranges), while 27 % of the park is occupied by woodlands (mostly in the Agaratoli range). The wetlands, which are a vital component for the maintenance of both the other forms of habitat, form more than 8% of the park. In terms of vegetation, it is the elephant grass and other associated species which stand out as the most important flora of the area. Species such as Imperata cylindrica, Arundo donax, Saccharum spontaneum, Phragmites karka, Erianthus ravanio, Saccharum naranga and Erianthus filfolius and Cymbopogon spp. constitute the main grass types. Aquatic vegetation, such as Eichornia spp., Andropogon spp., Ipomoea spp., Enydra spp., Pistia spp., Lomma spp., Nymphia spp. and Nelumba spp. occupy the wetland niche, while the most predominant trees are Bombax ceiba, Lagerstroemia parviflora, and Alibizia procera. The climate is monsoonal with a mean annual rainfall of 1828mm, 90% of which is received between April and October. The annual floods inundate almost the whole of the alluvial plain habitat from June to October, and even in December much of the lower lying ground is underwater. During the dry season the tall grassland is burned by the park staff to encourage the growth of lush young grass. Both fire and floods have helped to maintain the habitat as it is now for thousands of years.
Natural deaths, 1989, 0
Natural deaths, 1990, 0
As the sanctuary is situated in a low-lying area, it becomes entirely flooded with from the Brahmaputra and Ualong Rivers. Anti-poaching camps get submersed during high flood, and except for the Tuplung-Hoduk road which passes through the east of the sanctuary and two artificially raised areas, all parts become submerged during this period.
Natural deaths, 1991, 0
1968, Area extended by 212 kmy
Natural deaths, 1985, 0
Natural deaths, 1967-68, 1
Natural deaths, 1968-72, 12
Natural deaths, 1972-73, 0
Natural deaths, 1973-80, 4
Natural mortality 1995, 0
Natural deaths, 1930, 0
Natural deaths 1982, 12
Owing to the unusual shape of the sanctuary, resulting in a very long boiundary, protecting the area from encroachment has always been difficult. There is pressure on the land from 32 villages and 8 tea estates along the fringe, and there are 4 forest villages within the boundary. The villagers depend on the forest for firewood. Shrinkage of habitat by weed invasion is also a serious problem, with species such as Mikania sp., Leea sp., Eupatorium odoratum, Ageratum conyzoides, Lantana camara, Clerodendron sp. and Cyclosarun sp. dominating.
Poaching for rhinoceros horn has fast become the single most important reason for decline. So succesful were the initial protection measures, that Indian Rhino survived only in pockets of protected areas, vanishing almost completely from non-protected areas. This fragmentation, owing first to habitat loss and hunting, and subsequent to localized protection measures, has increased the exposure of populations to the threat of poaching, held as they are in deposits often far too small and ill-protected. Cf. Laokhowa which in 1983 lost 41 rhinos, virtually the entire population. Although poaching pressures on the rhinoceros have always been felt since the inception of their protection (prior to that, in the strictest terms, it was hunting pressures that were operating), two notable poaching waves hit India in the periods 1982-1986, and 1989-1993. These waves were most influenced by local law and order situations: they peaked in 1983 and 1993, respectively, coincident with the Laokhawa and the Manas rhinoceros massacres. Indeed, the phenomenon of poaching of the rhinoceros in India can perhaps be best understood in terms of waves, catalysed by local conditions and, conversely, quelled to some extent by retaliatory enforcement. The two poaching waves, it should be noted, are clearly distinct from one another, rather than part of a single wave marked by an interim lull: the different geographical epicentres of the two waves illustrate this. While in the 1982-86 wave, the sanctuaries of Laokhawa, Kaziranga and Orang were the hardest hit, making it almost a central Assam wave, the epicentre of the more recent wave was Manas, in lower Assam. However, it may not be assumed that the two waves were unalike in all respects: given the constancy of demand for rhinoceros hom and the equally constant opportunistic presence of poachers, the waves each represent time periods of relatively poor protection of reserves, breakdown in law and order, and other such local factors that present poachers with their opportunity. In fact, the operations of the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), which began in the mid-1980s, and the Bodoland dispute, which became prominent between 1987 and 1989, coincide neatly with the two main waves of poaching. It has, therefore, been very tempting to attribute a substantial amount of the poaching of rhinoceroses to these two outlawed groups. Even if this were true to some extent, there is enough evidence to show that in all probability it was the opportunistic poacher who profited chiefly from the breakdown in law and order which ensued from the uprisings, more than the actual activists directly, themselves.
Before 1971, This was a grazing reserve for surrounding villages.
Natural deaths, 1981, 1
The dry grassland areas are protected from fire by extensive firebreaks. Much of these areas are now covered with thick Saccharum growth. The southern part consists of a swampy area annually flooded by the Brahmaputra. Orang comprises 70% grassland, 29% woodland, 1% waterbodies. The major precipitation is May-September, average rainfall 300 mm per year, temperatures range from 7-35 degrees Celsius and relative humidity 66-80%.
Natural mortality 1984, 4
Natural mortality 1983, 6
Natural mortality 1985, 1
Orang was formerly an abandoned village. The Dhansiri and Panchnoi Rivers originating from the Bhutan Himalaya flow through the sanctuary, complementing a number of canals and artificial ponds dotting the park. Although the Brahmaputra River floods annually, the presence of a high terrace of land that remains above the waters accounts for there being no rhino deaths owing to flood. The rivers erode the southern and western parts of the park regularly.
The sanctuary is in two civil districts, of Darrang and Sonitpur, Assam, on the north bank of the Brahmaputra River. It is 70 km from Guwahati.
Natural deaths 1991, 0
Severely theratened by poaching of deer, and use for crop cultivation and livestock grazing. The villages around the sanctuary are thickly populated and most of the residents are uneducated. A large majority of people are very poor and solely dependent on the sanctuary for firewood, thatch and fish for their livelihood. They are allowed to live and cultivate land in forest villages within the reserve, in return for a certain amount of free labour for the Forest Department. Nepali herdsmen and Muslim fishermen pay the Forest Department for grazing and fishing rights. These practices may not be detrimental if well managed, but are disastrous if influenced by vested interests.
1972, Area extended by 200.2 kmy
Natural deaths 1980, 2
Natural deaths 1981, 4
Natural mortality 1982, 4
Natural mortality 1981, 0
Natural mortality 1980, 0
Natural mortality 1989, 2
Natural mortality 1988, 1
Natural deaths, 1992, 1
Recorded instances: Jaldapara, 1 in 1948-49, 1 in 1950-51, 1 dead and 1 injured in 1983, 2 injured in 1986, 1 injured in 1992. Gorumara, 1 sub-adulkt killed in 1983 Outside reserves, 1 killed in 1968-69
1985, Notified as a Wildlife Sanctuary, adding 75.6 kmy, now covering 75.6 kmy
Natural deaths, 1993, 0
1969, An area of 873 ha (8.73 kmy) was added, to make a total area of 71.980 kmy
1931, An area of 1729 ha (17.29 kmy) was dereserved on the northern side to alow settlement of immigrants from Bangladesh.
Natural deaths, 1957-58, 2
Natural deaths, 1948-9, 2
Natural deaths, 1949-50, 4
Natural deaths, 1985, 0
Natural deaths, 1984, 4
Natural deaths, 1983, 3
Natural deaths, 1982, 0
Natural deaths, 1968-72, 0
Natural deaths, 1952, 2.'Menon 1995
Natural deaths, 1950-51, 3
Natural deaths, 1981, 1
1985, April. Four female rhinos were exchanged with Nepal for 16 elephants. The capture and transportation was very smooth and there was no casualty. All rhinos are kept in an area of 20 kmy encircled by power fence.
1984, April 1. First rhinos arrived, 2/3 = 5. Chemical capture was done in Pabitora Valley adjacent to Kaziranga between 15 and 21 March 1984. Due to stress and strains of transportation and pregnancy, 2 females died. Two male and one female only survived.
1983, October, the Chief Minister of Assam agreed to provide 6 rhinos for translocation.
1979, 5 November, the indian Board for Wildlife met and appointed a sub-committee to consider and recommend areas for the translocation of rhinos from Kaziranga.
Natural deaths, 1993, 0
Natural deaths, 1992, 1
Natural deaths, 1991, 0
Natural deaths, 1990, 0
Natural deaths, 1989, 0
Natural deaths, 1988, 0
Natural deaths, 1987, 1
Most informants spoken to during research for this report felt that October to March coincided with peaks of poaching activity, some felt that monsoon months, when anti-poaching efforts were lax. were the time of heightened poaching, and yet others seemed to feel that there was no particularly choice time for poaching. In September 1993, a number of newspaper reports quoted park officials of Kaziranga as saying that floods aid poaching in the park. According to the reports, rhinoceroses would typically be taken by poachers as they crossed National Highway 37 to seek refuge in the Karbi Anglong and Burrhapahar hills, when the rest of the park is under water. An analysis of five years of poaching in Kaziranga (1989-93), shows that in general, winter months (October to March) seem to be the best time for poaching. However, the graph for 1991 shows a peak of poaching activity during the monsoon (in July). Other reports cite two distinct periods of November-December, and March, or the month following the burning of grass in the parks, as suggested peaks. In the Indian context, even when fuelled by highly organized groups, opportunistic poaching sallies would seem then to be based rather around particular periods of breakdown of law and order, at least in Assam. Assessment to date indicates that nothing less than sustained, year-round anti-poaching efforts are necessary to thwart opportunistic poachers.
There are six recorded ways of killing a Greater One-horned Rhinoceros: Shooting. Analysis of the data from 1980 to 1993 in three selected sanctuaries show that shooting is by far the preferred method of killing. An analysis of data for Kaziranga, Orang and Pabitora shows that more than 55% of rhinos killed were by this method. Poachers are normally hired gunmen working for financiers or agents. A poacher is normally a sharpshooter with some amount of jungle knowledge. Apart from the agent and the poacher, the team also consists of a local guide, and of a arms supplier. One arms supplier confessed to receive between Rs. 10000-20.000 ($ 320-640) for providing one rifle (type doesn't matter) to a poaching party for a week or ten days. Since 1983, when the AASU agitation hit Assam, and even more since 1987 when the Bodo agitation erupted in lower Assam. the state has had a surplus of illegal arms in circulation. Martin recorded as far back as 1987 that the syndicates organizing poaching had access to .303 mm bore and 7.62-inch bore rifles from Nagaland, the Nagas in turn getting them from neighbouring countries. Despite two army operations in the early 1990s (code-named Rhino and Bajrang) that did cut back on illegal supply of arms, their free availability in the State is a well-known fact. Today, modern weapons, including self-loading rifles, are all freely available in the illegal arms malls of the north-east of India. Ironically, covert information gathered during survey work for this report shows that at least a small percentage of rhinoceros hom in trade in India is used by 'extremist' organisations to barter for more arms. Some evidence of such exchanges came to light in Manas, as also in the case of horns from Kaziranga bartered for arms in Nagaland and Myanmar. An analysis of the arms captured by park authorities during their anti-poaching operations show no particular preference in weapons. Arms range from country-made muzzle loaders and shotguns to .315mm bore, .303mm bore rifles, medium-calibre, self-loading rifles and other semi-automatic weapons. In 1995, one park in Assam seized a semi-automatic weapon and a silencer, perhaps the first recorded instance of a silencer being used in India in rhinoceros poaching operations. In the cruder shotgun and muzzle loaders used there is often some distortion of the weapon or its projectile to make it more efficent. In 1987 in Manas, the gun used was a 12 bore shotgun, and it took the poachers one hour to remove the hom with an axe. A shotgun is not used with shot or pellets but instead with a home-made lead slug, or, in some cases, just a piece of iron rod cut to the right size and shaped. The front end of the barrel of the shotgun is then sawn off so that the constriction (or choke) that normally allows for a longer range is removed and a larger projectile can pass through. A single ball cartridge is usually all that is needed for a rhinoceros. which more often than not is at quite close range and does not require a particular amount of skill or finesse to target. Skilled poachers aim for a shot that kills in one attempt but may shoot a maximum of two to three times. They then usually have about half an hour before the nearest camp staff to have heard the shot reach the place (the chances of a camp, patrol party, or even the range headquarters hearing a shot are high). Thus, shooting is not a good poaching option if a rhinoceros is close to a camp, or if a patrol party is close at hand. It is presumed, therefore, that shooting poachers are usually well-acquainted with camp staff movements, and though the staff cannot be charged with compliance, they are often not sufficiently trained in patrol, ambush, counter-ambush and surveillance techniques. Trapping in a pit. Pit poaching is the second-most popular way of killing Indian rhino, but is a method only used in certain circumstances. Not only is it highly dependent on the terrain for its success, but it is not likely to be practised by poachers with access to guns: the chances of success are never certain, the digging of pits takes considerable time and more often than not at least two visits to the park are necessary, one to dig the pit and another to check it. This method of poaching is therefore practised only by those who are able to take advantage of sudden opportunities to enter a park and dig pits. Its advantages as a method are that it is not only difficult to detect before the event, but even afterwards: patrol parties have to cover wide expanses of reserve territory, without any audible signal to alert and guide them to the poaching place, as with a shooting. Only rarely are pits discovered before a rhinoceros falls in (although in 1955 as many as six such pits were discovered in Kaziranga). Usually pit-poaching teams comprise three to four men (according to observations of the composition of apprehended teams), and apart from their digging implements, kerosene or paraffin lamps (for light that does not disperse very far from the source), and food, they carry very little else. The pits dug are normally 6 x 6 x 4 feet (19.7 x 19.7 x 13.1 m) in dimension and in some cases are dug in the shape of a trapezium but mostly are rectangular. The shape and size of the pit are designed so that a fallen animal has little room to manoeuvre and the head is slightly above the pit. It is then easy for the poachers to take off the hom. A case was recorded in Assam where the rhinoceros had fallen headlong into the pit. Although the animal died, the poachers were not able to retrieve the hom. as they were not able to reach it, nor to move the rhinoceros. A pit is normally placed on a dandi where the rhinoceros is sure to walk, or near areas known to be visited by rhinoceroses, such as defecating heaps, water wallows, etc. In some cases, the pit is lined with sharpened bamboo stakes, but in other cases is left unadorned. In all cases, the pit is covered with vegetation. It appears that pits were not used in the past as a means of hunting rhinoceroses legally. Pit capture was apparently originally a method of taking rhinoceroses live. Electrocution. The ingenious method of electrocution was not used by poachers until as late as 1989. Wherever high tension powerlines of at least 11 000 volts pass through or near a park, poachers use this mode of poaching. At present, the only two Indian rhinoceros reserves at which this method has been recorded are Pabitora and Kaziranga. Pabitora has two power lines of 33 000 volts and 11 000 volts each running on the northern side of the sanctuary, and one line of 33 000 volts on the southern side. Kaziranga has an 11 000 volt line stretching as far as 25km across the Southwestern portion of the park. In Pabitora, a network of lines crisscross the park, from which illegal connections are run to motorized pumps for irrigation of nearby private fields. This makes the job of the poacher that much simpler than it would otherwise be. The modus operandi for electrocution is to connect a length of wire to a long, insulated rod (bamboo is a perfect material), by means of which it is hooked on to a passing high tension or other power line. In some cases, the actual attachment is effected by using a wire hook, in others, the length of wire itself is twisted to make a hook. The bamboo rod is then withdrawn to leave the length of wire dangling, potentially in the path of a rhinoceros. Care is taken to put it on a rhinoceros dandi (path) so as to maximize the chances of contact with a rhinoceros. The length of dangling wire is such that it would strike a rhinoceros at the level of its chest, thereby allowing smaller creatures to escape its harmful consequences. While this method of poaching is obviously restricted in use to places with suitable powerlines, and thus to certain areas of certain reserves, it is at the same time an indiscriminate method, like poisoning, which endangers many animals, including humans, happening to come into contact with it. Electrocution is the newest poaching technique in use, and was first used to kill a rhinoceros on 29 September 1989 in Pabitora. November 1989 saw the first electrocution in Kaziranga and during 1989 six rhinoceroses were killed by the method in the two parks of Pabitora and Kaziranga. Poisoning. Poisoning as a poaching method is more usually associated with tigers, than rhino. However, on 7 July 1987, a rhinoceros mother and calf were found dead at Tamuliduba, in Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary, killed by 'chemical poisoning', according to official records. While the hom of the mother was missing, the small 100g horn of the calf was recovered. On 24 March 1988, a female rhinoceros was poisoned in Orang Wildlife Sanctuary and the hom removed. No official record of the type of poison used, nor of any other details, is held. A poisoned rhinoceros salt lick in Manas National Park caused the death of a number of hog deer in the early 1990s, but there was no rhinoceros fatality as a result. Spearing. Killing rhinoceros with spears has not been recorded in India, but from neighbouring Nepal, in Chitwan National Park With a noose. This is known in India only from one isolated case in 1989, in Manas National Park, where a rhinoceros was found caught in the steel wire noose of a trapper, having been killed by strangulation and the cutting of the noose through the skin. ' 'Menon 1995','India','Poaching - Season','Most informants spoken to during research for this report felt that October to March coincided with peaks of poaching activity, some felt that monsoon months, when anti-poaching efforts were lax. were the time of heightened poaching, and yet others seemed to feel that there was no particularly choice time for poaching. In September 1993, a number of newspaper reports quoted park officials of Kaziranga as saying that floods aid poaching in the park. According to the reports, rhinoceroses would typically be taken by poachers as they crossed National Highway 37 to seek refuge in the Karbi Anglong and Burrhapahar hills, when the rest of the park is under water. An analysis of five years of poaching in Kaziranga (1989-93), shows that in general, winter months (October to March) seem to be the best time for poaching. However, the graph for 1991 shows a peak of poaching activity during the monsoon (in July). Other reports cite two distinct periods of November-December, and March, or the month following the burning of grass in the parks, as suggested peaks. In the Indian context, even when fuelled by highly organized groups, opportunistic poaching sallies would seem then to be based rather around particular periods of breakdown of law and order, at least in Assam. Assessment to date indicates that nothing less than sustained, year-round anti-poaching efforts are necessary to thwart opportunistic poachers.
Trader's profile. Indian rhinoceros horn traders are not normally of the same communities as the horn poachers. Although several wealthy Nagas are thought to be financiers in the operations, the main traders are Marwari businessmen. This study found that the Marwari community more or less controls the trade in rhinoceros horn in northeastern India. Otherwise, traders comprise wealthy Assamese and Bengalis, but the proportion of such persons is very negligible in comparison to Marwaris. The Marwaris, who originally hail from the Marwar district of Rajasthan, are primarily a trading people who are considered throughout India to constitute one of the shrewdest business communities. Marwaris have been in Assam for many years and control much of the large business concerns of both Assam and northern Bengal, as well as of the adjoining northeastern States. Large scale demonstrations and formations of trade unions by the local populace, somewhat resentful of the Mawari grip on the local economy, have thus far not been able to curtail the Marwafi business expansion. The rhinoceros horn agent or trader does not deal exclusively in the commodity and often deals in a number of other contraband goods. In many cases he or she is also a known narcotics smuggler or illegal arms operative, according to information gathered by the author. The interests run in a parallel and inter-connected fashion that is well known to law enforcement auencies that operate in the field, such as the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence and Central Bureau of Investiuation of India. In some instances, there are two levels of dealer, with a primary agent offering horn to the main dealer. As there are a number of dealers, often one takes on the mantle of leader for an area, for example central Assam, or lower Assam and northern Bengal combined. until he is displaced, for example by assassination, as in the case of the most prominent dealer of rhinoceros horn in central Assam in the mid- 1980s, who was shot dead by ULFA. Most of the traders operate out of several towns with headquarters in one, but often shifting residences.
India. The price per kilogramme rose from Rs7333 (US$1535) in 1965-66, to Rs 1 6 001 (US$1975) in 1978-79. In 1979-80, however, coincident with the cessation of legal sales of horn in Assam, the price went up about four-fold to Rs62 500 (US$762 1) per kg. Today, research for this report revealed that poachers get ca Rs. 100.000 (over US$3000) on site (usually per horn), which then has to be shared between the team of three to five persons. When noting that foreign retailers receive many times this amount for Asian rhinoceros horn, it should be kept in mind that at this stage, the horn is never sold as such and the price is really a calculation based on the price for the minute quantities of rhinoceros horn powder and the medical knowledge dispensed by retail pharmacists. It is revealing to compare the prices received for Indian horn with those in an African operative. For example, in South Africa traders received between US$535-890 per kilogramme if selling horn to a Chinese or Taiwanese at the beginning of the 1990s, and at least in one case the mark-up was so great that a Taiwanese trader received US$2000 per kilogramme of horn, in 1991, back in Taiwan (Martin, 1994). Bv comparison. the Indian middleman gets as much as Rs. 300.000 to Rs. 500.000, or roughly US$10 000-US$15 000 per kg of horn at the trade level in India.
Demand for rhino horn in Oman.
Although traditionally the nights of a full moon are more conducive to poaching activities, in reality, such factors do not appear important: poaching occurs throughout the month, day and night, and throughout the seasons. However, the main deciding factor seems to be opportunism, which may take account of several conditions, including suitable weather, light and level of surveillance.
Theory of non-selective targeting of rhinos on a basis of sex by poachers.
The Tibetan medicine school dates back as early as the second century AD. Although, initially an amalgamation of Indian and Chinese schools of medicine, the seventh and eight centuries AD saw physicians from Persia, Greece and Nepal contributing to the assemblage of Tibetan medicine cultures. Today, the practice is an integrated part of the tantric teachings of the Mahayana school of Buddhism, which aims to lead one to a direct union with reality and liberation from the cyclic world of suffering. After China colonized Tibet in the early 1950s, His Holiness the Dalai Lama, who is the spiritual head of the Tibetan people, fled Tibet in 1959. Under Dr. Tenzin Choedak, the 14th Dalai Lama's physician, the school flourished within India, the country of exile. The school uses a large variety of flora and fauna in the medicines, rhinoceros horn being one of them, despite the Dalai Lama's express condemnation of illegal killing of animals. Rhinoceros horn is used in six principal Tibetan medicines made and marketed in India. The medicines range from curing renal disorders to haematemesis, hepatic malfunctions, pulmonary disorders and for proper circulation. The medicines are part of 200 different formulations made at the Tibetan Medical and Astrological Institute at Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh. Founded in 1961, the institute formulates the medicines under the supervision of the chief pharmacist. The methods of making the pills vary, but normally the concoctions contain between 10-30 ingredients which are weighed, pulverised and sifted. The sifted powder is kneaded with boiled water and with plant extracts and then rolled into pills. These are dried and polished and may be dispensed directly or wrapped in different coloured silk sachets. The six formulations containing rhinoceros horn have between 13-25 different components in them.
India. The earliest record of use of rhinoceros derivatives in India is that of rhinoceros homs being made into knife handles in the twelfth century (Ahmed, 1960 = al-Sharif al-Idrisi)
India - Skin. Rhinoceros skin shields were also common in history, the warrior clans of Rajasthan (of Udaipur, Mewar, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Bikaner, etc.) curing rhinoceros skins to a transparent amber colour, and decorating them skilfully as shields (Watt, 1904). Martin (1983b) documents that the shields were painted with black lacquer and decorated elaborately with gold and gilt. He also documents the European-style emblems on many of them and this was very common among the aristocracy of that period. He suggests that the origin of the hide for these shields would more likely have been Africa than Assam, basing his hypothesis on the fact that it was far easier for trading vessels to travel the oft-used trade routes between India and Africa rather than doing on perilous jungle expeditions. In view of later imports of African rhinoceros horn into India, such a hypothesis does indeed have a valid base.
India - Urine. Rhinoceros urine has long been considered in India to have medicinal properties, and as late as 1984 when the rhinoceros translocation programme in Dudhwa was being carried out, it was recorded that villagers in Dudhwa started asking for rhinoceros urine - a commodity that they would not have had access to for more than 100 years. From 1977-78, the Guwahati Zoo in Assam collected 240 bottles of rhinoceros urine, each bottle containing 750 ml, and sold for six rupees (US$0.75), thereby earning- a revenue of Rs. 1440 (US$ 177) Zoo Prices for Rhino urine in India 1975 Calcutta Rs. 1.80 per litre legal 1976 Calcutta Rs. 3.20 per litre legal 1976 Bombay Rs. 67 per litre legal 1980 Calcutta Rs. 3.50 per litre legal 1980 Delhi Rs. 24.50 per litre illegal 1980 Guwahati Rs. 6.50 per litre legal 1980 Bombay Free on demand legal End
Population structure in Jaldapara, West Bengal, India Adult Younger animals Total 1975 7/7/4 5 23 1978 5/7/4 3 19 1980 5/7/6 4 22 1988 9/11 4 24 1989 9/13 5 27 1992 8/12 13 33 End
During this study, several fakes were seen and photographed, mainly materials seized by law enforcement agencies. Baidya (1982) documents the manufacture of a rhinoceros horn from a cattle horn (either from domestic cow or Water Buffalo). He reports that a domestic cattle horn is mounted on a cement base and suitably coated to pass off as a genuine rhinoceros horn. However, in the case he examined, the exterior coating had peeled off revealing its spurious character and the fake was obviously not as expertly made as some which are in the market today. Such fakes are also common in Africa: for example, in 1983 six fakes were seen in Zambia. In this case, the horns bearing a close resemblance to real horns were made from a mixture of resin, cow hair and cowdung. The price asked was US$64 per horn. Among the fakes seen during the author's investigations, the most simple ones ranged from carvings in stone and moulded plastic horns. The commoner ones are made from wild buffalo horns and cattle bones. The horn is shaped and then the basal surface of a rhinoceros horn imitated by using wax or other resinous substances. In many cases it is very difficult to distinguish real horn from manufactured imitations, but examination of the base very carefully is often the best way of doing so. Real rhinoceros horn has many minute canaliculi-like channels that dot the base creating a pitted surface. It is very difficult to reproduce these on fake horns. The most interesting fakes and usually the ones resembling real horn most closely are those using bamboo root. The roots of certain kinds of bamboos are dug out and carved in the form of a rhinoceros horn. They are then dipped in oil and hung in the sun for many days until the correct colour is attained. The advantage that a bamboo root has over other substances is that naturally, bamboo has a porous base which lends itself to a the creation of a simulated rhinoceros horn base. In most cases, the fakes succeed in being passed off as real ones, and therefore fetch prices commensurate with rhinoceros horn prices.
India. The horn was also ground up into a powder and mixed with drinking potions for use as an aphrodisiac. Although African rhinoceros hom is documented to have been used as an aphrodisiac in Gujarat (Martin, 1979), Indian rhinoceros hom quickly fell out of use owing to the fact that it quickly became too expensive for Indians to afford, and also again because the prices being offered in the Orient were far greater than could be had in India. Also, the illegality of the trade and the strong penalties instituted against it were successful in discouraging most Indians from using it within the country. Martin (1983b) documented that about 50kg was annually consumed within India for domestic use at that time, but the findings for this report seemed to show that today even this fiaure is too hich. The very negligible quantities used today within India, added together, would not amount to more than a few horns. The use of rhinoceros hom as an aphrodisiac has very many forms, all of them documented by Martin (1983b). It can either be mixed with herbs (in one case reported to be in a 1:6 ratio) and then dispensed, to be had with honey, cream, ghee or butter. Alternatively, the hom is burnt and the ash mixed with saffron, cardamom and honey and then retailed as a twice-daily dose. The present study found no evidence of the widespread use of rhinoceros hom in Gujarat as an aphrodisiac, as reported by Martin (1979).
India. reported that 2-3 rhinoceroses were captured and sold each year from Kaziranga National Park during the 1970s. He quoted the price for an Indian rhinoceros as about Rs 100 000 (US$12 345) each, for an Indian zoo. Price for a foreign zoo was about Rs. 200.000 ($ 24.690).
From India. Moreover, in Singapore in 1985, a survey found that all respondents named India as the origin of rhinoceros horn in the medicinal trade, while only four out of seven even spoke of Africa.
From India. Most of the Indian horn found its way, as far back as the early 1970s, to Taiwan, Thailand and South Korea. Later studies showed that demand for Asian horn in Taiwan and South Korea continued, 31% of shops selling rhinoceros horn in Taipei and Kaohsiung identifying their horn as Asian. Official imports of Indian Rhino horn in South Korea 1973 30 kg value $ 1055 1977 19 kg value $ 1661 1979 20 kg value $ 6775 End
On 17 September 1993, Ms. Deiky Wangchuk, the aunt of the present king of Bhutan, Jiame Wangchuk, was held on entry to Taiwan with a consignment of nine bear gall bladders and 22 rhinoceros horns worth NT$20 million (US$769 000), which upon interrogation were indicated to be of Manas origin (Loh, pers.comm., 1993). All the horns had been collected at a bottling plant owned by the royal family in Bhutan and from there conveyed on to Ms. Wangchuk. The King of Bhutan dissassociated himself with such illegal activities and Ms Wangchuk was held in a Taiwanese prison until she was bailed out and returned to Bhutan.
Trade routes from India. There have been some significant changes. A tightening up of security and a greater understanding of urgency among law enforcement officers has resulted in the dealer becoming very wary. Also, Calcutta, having become a known trade centre, has begun to be circumvented and alternative trade routes have been explored by the traders. Even by 1991, Martin was documenting slight shifts in the trade route via Calcutta. Although he still maintained that from Assam some of the horns went out to Calcutta, the Singapore connection was being slowly replaced by a Taiwanese one. In the early 1980s, Martin estimated, some Indian horn went to Singapore - the country was not a member of CITES until 1987. However, as Taiwan started spending more on rhinoceros horn, the Singapore route shifted to a Hong Kong-Taipei link, or a direct route to Taipei. Research for this report found that the rhinoceros horn trade has largely shifted out of Calcutta today, although prominent dealers still maintain links in the city. Taking rhinoceros horn overland to Calcutta and then smuggling it outside the country is becoming an increasingly risky option. The main trade routes today all seem to operate overland out of India and then by air to Southeast Asia. As explained earlier, this is not immutable, as traders often change their modus operandi to avoid detection. The other main finding of this study relatirig to trade routes is that there are at least two distinct trader and poacher blocs, one operating in lower Assam and northern West Bengal and the other operating in central Assam. While the first operates south of Guwahati, the other controls the trade up to the border with Myanmar to the east. Field investigations showed that there is very little interaction between these two groups, and normally horns poached from a region are disposed off through the trade centre of that region. The main trade routes operating are as follows: 1. Lower Assam/West Bengal - Simla Bazaar - Siliguri - Jaigaon - Phuntsholing (Bhutan) - Paro - East and Southeast Asia. 2. Lower Assam/West Bengal - Siliguri - Nepalgaon - Kathmandu (Nepal) - East and Southeast Asia. 3. Lower Assam - Bongaigaon - Hatisar - Galegphug (Bhutan) - East and Southeast Asia. 4. Central Assam - Karbi Anglong Hills - Dimapur - Tuensana (Naga border town) - Myanmar. 5. Central Assam - Naogaon/Tezpur - Guwahati(storage) - Siliguri or Calcutta - East and Southeast Asia. 6. Central Assam - Guwahati - Silchar - Bangladesh - East and Southeast Asia. 7. Assam/West Bengal - trade centres (Guwahati, Siliguri, Dimapur) - direct purchase by East/Southeast Asian national. 8. Central Assam - Karbi Anglong Hills - Imphal - Manipuri border town - Myanmar. Siliguri, the new sprawl in northern Bengal is fast becoming the most important centre. As it is the gateway to the north-east all transport from there to Bengal, or vice-versa, and transport to Nepal or Bhutan normally pass through this city. Thus, it is a convenient trade centre. Also, the city is more or less controlled by Marwaris who are the main tradesmen. Dimapur on the Nagaland-Assam border is particularly important for Kaziranga horn, as it is easily accessible through the district of Karbi Anglong, where law enforcement is at a much lower level compared to other areas, and through which Nagaland is easily accessible. Dimapur is again a Marwari base in Nagaland. The horn from here is probably taken to a border town, such as Tuensang and then bartered or sold to the Myanmarese. Guwahati has many a time sprung surprises in the form of arrests of poachers and seizures of horn, pointing to the increasing use of the city as a storage point until an alternate route can be taken. The use of Guwahati as a storage point was confirmed when the arrest of an officer of the Directorate of Economics and Statistics in the city on 22 December 1993 revealed that the five rhinoceros horns that were with him were brought in from Manas National Park. Formerly, the horns of lower Assam would usually have gone to Siliguri and Calcutta or direct across the Bhutanese or Nepalese border, but Guwahati has evidently been used as a storage point until surveillance along known trading routes is diverted, or lapses. The recent apprehension of a Taiwanese national buying rhinoceros horns in India lends credence to the theory that some East Asian nationals have taken to coming to India themselves for the purchase of rhinoceros horn.
India. Another use of rhinoceros horn is its purported use by militants in preparing fake currency notes. This fact was repeatedly heard during this study from a large number of people in Assam but could not be verified in the field, obviously so because of the nature of use. According to some accounts, rhinoceros horn is one of a dozen or more components that are put together to make the basic printing dye to print fake currency. This is done in underground presses by militant outfits such as the ULFA, NSCN and the Bodos. Reportedly, the rhinoceros horn components give a dark coloration and may also be used as a fixative in the dye production.
India. In eastern India, small flakes of rhinoceros horn are worn in rings both by men and women. These flakes vary in colour from a dark yellow to a deep amber and after use may turn brownish. They are normally worn by Assamese, although their use in Bengal has also been historically recorded. Theser ings are worn with many superstitious beliefs, mainly to ward away spirits. They are also supposed to provide the wearer with good health and protect him or her from diseases. The wearers allow the horn to touch their skin through a hole in the bottom of the ring. The rings also raise the social prestige of the wearer. It must be mentioned that a large number of stones and pieces of cattle horn are used to make fake rhino horn rings.
India, poachers price for rhino horn 1985-86, Manas, Rs. 14.798 per kg 1985-86, Orang, rs. 36.996 per kg 1986, , Assam, Rs. 32.752 per kg 1987, Kaziranga, Rs. 20.000-25.000 per kg 1989, Assam, Rs. 101.331per kg 1993, Assam, Rs. 69.375 per kg 1994, Assam, Rs. 100.000 per kg
India, Trader's price for rhino horn 1977-78, AssamRs. 16.000 per kg 1982, India, Rs. 70.000 per kg 1987, Assam, Rs. 103.536 1991, Nagaland, Rs. 200.000 1994, Assam, Rs. 187.750-400.000 1994, Assam, Rs. 400.000-500.000
Vigne and Martin (1994) recorded that the main shooter in a poaching party receives between Rs 10 000-20 000 (US$ 320-640) and the other members IRS 10 000 each (US$320). This may amount to a total payment to the poaching party of about IRS 50 000 (US$1600). Martin and Vigne's figures are largely substantiated by investigations for this report. which revealed that one successful operation can obtain between Rs20 000 and Rs50 000 (US$640-1600).
Martin et al. (1987) documented what they said was a new threat from Bhutan, reporting the incident of December 1979 when the King of Bhutan shot a rhinoceros in the Bhutanese part of Manas. It is recorded that although the horn and tail were removed, the rest of the carcass was buried. Many believed this to be a royal ceremony where once in the life-time of the monarch, one rhinoceros was to be hunted.
It has been deduced that the vast majority of Indian rhinoceros hom finds its way to Oriental medicine markets. Asian rhinoceros horn commands several times the price of African rhinoceros horn, and is especially prized in Oriental medicine markets.
India. Horn were used to make cups for royalty and aristocracy which were used not only as a decorative objects but also to act as poison detectors - a belief that was widespread in those days.
Martin also documents the use of rhinoceros hom to cure lumbago, polio and arthritis, as well as haemorrhoids, in which case the smoke from a burning horn is directed towards the patient's underparts. He also describes rhinoceros blood being used as a tonic, rhinoceros meat as a cardiac stimulant and to alleviate nosebleeds. Finally, he documents the use of rhinoceros fat and stomach for treatment of skin diseases and, again, polio. Martin (1983b) documented very little rhinoceros horn for sale in traditional medicine shops in India, however.
Bhutan was traditionally viewed as a Buddhist protectorate where the very laws of ahimsa decreed that animals should not be killed. Martin et al. (1987) documented what they said was a new threat from Bhutan, reporting the incident of December 1979 when the King of Bhutan shot a rhinoceros in the Bhutanese part of Manas. It is recorded that although the horn and tail were removed, the rest of the carcass was buried. Many believed this to be a royal ceremony where once in the life-time of the monarch, one rhinoceros was to be hunted. What was brought home to conservationists, however, was the use of Bhutan as a conduit in the trade of rhinoceros horn, a fact not formerly suspected. The major Indian trade centre of Siliguri is very close (35km) from the border town of Jaigaon, from where the Bhutanese town of Paro is less than 100 km. Paro has an airport that operates fliahts to Ban-kok, and was part of an easy route for horn to pass undetected past a relatively lax and uninformed law enforcement agency.
Thailand, Trader's price for rhino horn, 1990, Bangkok, Rs. 373.524
Bhutan, Trader's price for rhino horn, 1993, Bhutan, Rs. 206.646
Taipei, Trader's price for rhino horn 1979, Taipei, Rs. 139.266 1985, Taipei, Rs. 295.092 1988, Taipei, Rs. 563.716 1990, Taipei, Rs. 945.268 1993, Taipei, Rs. 961.563 (powder) 1993, TaipeiRs. 1.282.188 (powder) 1993, Taipei, Rs. 1.602.500 (powder)
Taiwan, Trader's price for rhino horn 1985, Taiwan, Rs. 263.472 1988, Taiwan, Rs. 595.989 1990, Taiwan, Rs. 706.747 1990, Taiwan, Rs. 349.840
Export trade in rhinoceros horn was illegal in India from 1972, but between 1965 and 1980 the State of Assam put up rhinoceros homs (from animals killed by poachers or by natural causes) for legal tender on the domestic market, and these auctions are said to have been the largest source of smuggled horn from India after 1972. Auctions stopped after 1979-80 as a result of pressure from conservationists. No horn from West Bengal has ever been auctioned. Auctioned horns were graded into three qualities: sound, defective and third quality. Sound horns were full horns with no cracks in them Defective horns had varying numbers of cracks in them. The third quality grade was usually for broken horns. Martin (1983b) documents that while most bidders at such auctions were traders from Calcutta, from 1965 to 1976 a Kathmandu-based Nepalese bought all the horn, whereas from 1978 to 1980 a merchant from Manipur outbid all others. While recording this, he does not document whether these Calcutta-based and Manipur-based traders are Marwaris, but field investigations for this report indicate that this could have been the case.
Most of the Indian horn found its way, as far back as the early 1970s, to Taiwan, Thailand and South Korea.
From India. Official imports of Indian Rhino horn in South Korea 1965 62 kg value $ 2194 1967 86 kg value $ 3853 1971 31 kg value $ 1539 1975 ? Value $ 807 End
Most of the Indian horn found its way, as far back as the early 1970s, to Taiwan, Thailand and South Korea. Later studies showed that demand for Asian horn in Taiwan and South Korea continued, 31% of shops selling rhinoceros horn in Taipei and Kaohsiung identifying their horn as Asian.
From East Africa. Between 1949 and 1971, India officially imported some 13 kg of African rhinoceros horn from Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, according to those countries' official statistics: trade in rhinoceros horn was legal between India and those countries at that time, but became illegal after the enactment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (in 1972).
India. Killing of rhino calves by tigers (their only natural predator). Recorded instances: 1952, 2 (mother and calf) in Gorumara 1968-69, 1 calf outside sanctuary 1981, 1 calf in Jaldapara.
Accidental falls into swamps Recorded instances: 1948-49, 1 in Jaldapara 1984, 1 in Jaldapara 1986, 1 in Jaldapara
