1500
There is also no recent confirmation of a remnant population in the Akagera National Park, Rwanda.
Horns. Locality: South Africa, Graaff Reinet. Collected by: James Murray, 1880. In coll. Reinet House Museum, Graaff Reinet, South Africa
1960, simum, an aerial count gave a total of just over 700. Since then numbers in the Zululand reserves have more than doubled
Horns. Locality: South Africa, Graaff Reinet. Collected by: James Murray, 1880. In coll. Reinet House Museum, Graaff Reinet, South Africa
Ceratotherium simum. At first confined to the Umfolozi-Corridor-Hluhluwe Game Reserve Complex, subsequently they have been reintroduced to the Mkuzi, Itala and Ndumu Game Reserves in Natal and many other reserves including the Kruger National Park and Pilanesberg National Park.
100.000
Horns. Locality: South Africa, Graaff Reinet. Collected by: James Murray, 1880. In coll. Reinet House Museum, Graaff Reinet, South Africa
probably under 200
300-400
A small number (under 50) have been reported in Cameroun and the Central African Republic, the survival of these animals has not been confirmed.
They still exist in Kaokoland and Damaraland in northwestern Namibia, and in the eastern parts of the Etosha National Park. The largest concentration (some 100 animals) is in the Otjovasandu area in the southwest of the park (Cilliers, 1989). There are other widely scattered records south to 21.30' S and east to about 17 E.
14.800
63.000
600
In addition to D. b. minor and D. b. bicornis (which has recently been reintroduced to the Cape Province), the Subregion also has a small population of D. b. michaeli, originating from Kenya, in the Addo Elephant National Park.
The last record from the Orange Free State is dated 1842.
Ceratotherium simum. At first confined to the Umfolozi-Corridor-Hluhluwe Game Reserve Complex, subsequently they have been reintroduced to the Mkuzi, Itala and Ndumu Game Reserves in Natal and many other reserves including the Kruger National Park and Pilanesberg National Park.
A small number (under 50) have been reported in Cameroun and the Central African Republic, the survival of these animals has not been confirmed.
3000
1930, bicornis, 15
Ceratotherium simum. At first confined to the Umfolozi-Corridor-Hluhluwe Game Reserve Complex, subsequently they have been reintroduced to the Mkuzi, Itala and Ndumu Game Reserves in Natal and many other reserves including the Kruger National Park and Pilanesberg National Park.
The last black rhinoceros was shot in the Cape Province at Graaff Reinet in 1880. The horns of this individual are now in the collection of the Reinet House Museum, Graaff Reinet. It was shot in the parsonage garden by James Murray on the instructions of his brother, the Rev. Charles Murray, as it was eating his vegetables.
In Mozambique, south of the Zambezi River, they may still occur in the Gorongoza National Park.
a very small number
under 50
The last record of individuals in the three neighbouring countries was of one which was shot in Zimbabwe at Mpanda's Kraal in the northeast of the country in 1895.
The white rhinoceros, from the evidence of skeletal remains and their depiction in rock art, at one time occurred from the coastal areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, through the Sahara and East Africa to the Republic of South Africa. In the wild the northern white rhinoceros is now only found in the Garamba National Park in Zaire, while the southern white rhinoceros is now spread throughout much of the Southern African Subregion.
1897, As a result the Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves were proclaimed in 1897, which along with St Lucia makes them the oldest game reserves in Africa.
In Zimbabwe, previously confined to the Zambezi Valley and adjacent parts of the escarpment from the western end of Lake Kariba to the Mozambique border, they have been translocated to the Hwange National Park and Matobo National Park.
Diceros bicornis. Their limits of distribution are still rapidly altering, for example within recent years in Zimbabwe, the remnants of two isolated populations in the Chipinga and Mtoko districts, threatened by land development, were translocated to the Gonarezhou National Park.
Pienaar (1970a) recorded an unusual incident of an elephant killing one at a water hole. Predation on them, except by man, is minimal, although rarely they may be killed by lions.
In Botswana, Selous (1908) stated that he shot one at Thamma Setsi (Tamuseche Pan) on the Zimbabwe border in 1874, but they persisted beyond this date in this area as he recorded their spoor in 1877.
An unknown but very small number still survive in northern Botswana.
Diceros bicornis. During the period 1986-1989, 160 were established on private ranches, as part of an ongoing programme to develop four major breeding groups under free-range conditions (du Toit, pers. comm.).
In Kaokoland and Damaraland in northern Namibia, 43 were removed in 1970-72 as a conservation measure to the Etosha National Park (Hofmeyr et al, 1975).
Two small populations of D. b. bicornis have been reintroduced recently from Namibia to the Vaalbos and Augrabies National Parks in the Cape.
Calves walk and suckle within three hours of birth. At this stage the females are extremely intolerant of disturbance. At birth calves are lighter in colour than adults and are sparsely haired. They are alert and playful and appear to have keener eyesight than their mothers. Suckling at first takes place standing up, but as they grow older, the calves have to lie down on their bellies to reach the teats, a pair being situated in the cow's inguinal region. During the early life of the calf the cow tends to keep to thick bush, the calf always in close proximity, walking at her side or behind her. At a few weeks of age the calf starts to browse, but continues to suckle for about a year. The cow calls the calf by emitting a highpitched mew, while the calf, if it has strayed, calls the cow with a bellowing squeal. The cow will defend her young vigorously. Goddard (1966) witnessed a cow killing a lion in these circumstances.
Six D. b. minor have been reintroduced recently into Swaziland.
The calf is rejected by the cow at two to four years of age, either during the cow's next pregnancy or at birth of the new calf. If rejection of the calf takes place after the new calf is born, the rejection by the female may be active and vicious (Moss, 1976). The calf continues to grow until seven to eight years old. It may join another calf, a bull or another female, the females being usually more tolerant of their presence.
Ceratotherium simum. The last record of individuals in the three neighbouring countries was of one which was shot in Zimbabwe at Mpanda's Kraal in the northeast of the country in 1895.
Their limits of distribution are still rapidly altering, for example within recent years in Zimbabwe, the remnants of two isolated populations in the Chipinga and Mtoko districts, threatened by land development, were translocated to the Gonarezhou National Park.
Translocated from South Africa to Mozambique 85, although Emslie (pers. comm.) believes Mozambique now holds the dubious distinction of the species going extinct twice.
In Mozambique, a few scattered survivors are still present in remote areas of dense bush (du Toit, pers. comm.). Only in Mozambique can it be regarded as endangered.
In Mozambique one was shot at Marcorsa (SE 1733 D4) by the late Sir Hugh Beadle in 1935.
Happily, the proclamation and protection of these Natal reserves, coupled with the development of rhino capture techniques, led to both species being saved from extinction in South Africa. To date a staggering 3 440 white and 185 black rhinoceros have been translocated from Natal reserves to form new populations both in the Subregion and abroad (Meiklejohn & Strauss, pers. comm.). Similar action with the black rhinoceros has been taken by other National Parks organisations in the Subregion.
When in a hurry they move with a graceful trot, timed from a vehicle as up to 28 km/h, and under stress canter and gallop at up to 40 km/h
1912, proclaimed
The colour of the skin is grey, but like that of the elephant. is often obscured by a coating of soil or mud. At birth the wrinkled skin is pale grey with a pink tinge.
Some characteristic features which serve to distinguish them from their near relative, the white rhinoceros, Ceratotheriurn simum, include their possession of a prehensile upper lip (Fig. 296.1), which is used in grasping the twigs of the woody plants on which they feed, the shorter head, longer neck and smaller, rounded ears. The outline of the back is also different in the two species, the black rhinoceros lacking the nuchal hump, which is a well developed and obvious feature of the white rhinoceros (Fig. 296.2). The black rhinoceros carries its shorter head higher than the white rhinoceros.
One of the most obvious characters that differentiates them is the square lips of C. simum (Fig. 295.1) and the hooked, prehensile upper lip of D. bicornis, which are adaptations to and in their feeding habits, and they may also be referred to in this way.
Two small populations of D. b. bicornis have been reintroduced recently from Namibia to the Vaalbos and Augrabies National Parks in the Cape.
Diceros bicornis. In Zimbabwe, previously confined to the Zambezi Valley and adjacent parts of the escarpment from the western end of Lake Kariba to the Mozambique border, they have been translocated to the Hwange National Park and Matobo National Park.
Their limits of distribution are still rapidly altering, for example within recent years in Zimbabwe, the remnants of two isolated populations in the Chipinga and Mtoko districts, threatened by land development, were translocated to the Gonarezhou National Park.
In Kaokoland and Damaraland in northern Namibia, 43 were removed in 1970-72 as a conservation measure to the Etosha National Park (Hofmeyr et al, 1975). The remaining rhinoceros were almost wiped out by poachers, only a relict population of some 60 rhinos remaining by the early 1980's. Following extensive protection measures records for 1987-88 show there are about 100 rhinoceros now occurring in the area (Britz & Loutit, 1989). They still exist in Kaokoland and Damaraland in northwestern Namibia, and in the eastern parts of the Etosha National Park. The largest concentration (some 100 animals) is in the Otjovasandu area in the southwest of the park (Cilliers, 1989). There are other widely scattered records south to 21.30' S and east to about 17 E. A small number have been reintroduced from Namibia into the Augrabies Falls and Vaalbos National Parks in the Cape Province (Raath & Hall-Martin, 1989).
Diceros bicornis. In Zimbabwe, previously confined to the Zambezi Valley and adjacent parts of the escarpment from the western end of Lake Kariba to the Mozambique border, they have been translocated to the Hwange National Park and Matobo National Park.
In Botswana, Selous (1908) stated that he shot one at Thamma Setsi (Tamuseche Pan) on the Zimbabwe border in 1874, but they persisted beyond this date in this area as he recorded their spoor in 1877.
Six D. b. minor have been reintroduced recently into Swaziland.
During the association of the cow and her calf, the calf usually precedes its mother when moving, being guided by gentle prods of her horn. This is in contrast to the black rhinoceros, D. bicornis, where the calf usually runs by her side or behind her.
White rhinoceros walk slowly, their heads held close to the ground, their nostrils in close contact with it to the extent that, in sandy soil, the broad mouth may mark clearly in the spoor. When in a hurry they move with a graceful trot, timed from a.vehicle as up to 28 km/h, and under stress canter and gallop at up to 40 km/h
The territorial bull alone sprays urine which is directed backwards between the hind legs. Sometimes the urine emerges as a stream and the dung is deposited without scattering. These actions are common near territorial boundaries, but may take place anywhere within the territory. However, when the territorial bull has to leave his territory to drink, he urinates in a stream in the manner of subordinates (Owen-Smith, 1973).
They are generally temperamentally quieter and less prone to provocation than black rhinoceros.
A few survive in the area north of the Mkuzi Game Reserve and east of the Pongola River.
Spermatogenesis commences in males after eight years of age, but no male was observed holding a territory or mating which was under nine years of age (Hitchins & Anderson, 1983).
Ceratotherium simum. At first confined to the Umfolozi-Corridor-Hluhluwe Game Reserve Complex, subsequently they have been reintroduced to the Mkuzi, Itala and Ndumu Game Reserves in Natal and many other reserves including the Kruger National Park and Pilanesberg National Park.
By the end of the 19th century the southern white rhinoceros was reduced to only one population of about 50 to 100 in the southern part of the area which now forms the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve in Natal. It appears the population estimate of 20 for this time was a deliberate under-estimate to convince the politicians of the urgency of the situation (Emslie, pers. comm.).
1900, simum, Renshaw (1904) recorded that at the turn of century there were only about 10 alive in Zululand
1916, simum, Vaughan Kirby, the first Game Conservator in Zululand, estimated that only 20 individuals survived in the reserves
1930, simum, the first official estimate in 1930 revealed that there were 120 in the Umfolozi Reserve and 30 on adjacent ground
1930, bicornis, reduced by 1930 to only about 85 to 135 in northern Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve
The last black rhinoceros in the Transvaal was seen in the Kruger National Park in 1936.
Ceratotherium simum. At first confined to the Umfolozi-Corridor-Hluhluwe Game Reserve Complex, subsequently they have been reintroduced to the Mkuzi, Itala and Ndumu Game Reserves in Natal and many other reserves including the Kruger National Park and Pilanesberg National Park.
Van Riebeeck's Diary of 1652 recorded rhinoceros as occurring on the slopes of Table Mountain and as being common on the Cape Flats.
Both species of rhinoceros formerly occurred widely in the southern parts of Africa. The white rhinoceros, however, never occurred very far south of the Orange River and generally was absent from the Orange Free State and parts of the southern Transvaal, although in the east it occurred throughout most of Natal, except in the extreme south. The black rhinoceros, on the other hand, had a wider distribution and occurred throughout most of southern Africa, except in parts of the Orange Free State and southern parts of the Transvaal. With the increase in European settlement of southern Africa from the 17th century both species were exterminated gradually throughout their range. By the end of the 19th century the southern white rhinoceros was reduced to only one population of about 50 to 100 in the southern part of the area which now forms the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve in Natal. Ceratotherium simum was extinct in the Cape by 1880. The last black rhinoceros in the Transvaal was seen in the Kruger National Park in 1936. At the end of the 19th century they were restricted to what is now the Umfolozi Game Reserve, but spread during the 1930's and 1940's to the Hluhluwe Game Reserve. At first confined to the Umfolozi-Corridor-Hluhluwe Game Reserve Complex, subsequently they have been reintroduced to the Mkuzi, Itala and Ndumu Game Reserves in Natal and many other reserves including the Kruger National Park and Pilanesberg National Park.
Ceratotherium simum. White rhinoceros have been moved to the following countries (figures correct to 31/12/1983-Meiklejohn, pers. comm., 1990): Subregion -Cape 80, Natal 487, Orange Free State 23, Transvaal 931, Bophuthatswana 330, Ciskei 6, Transkei 15, Venda 6. They have not done so well in the sourveld areas of Natal (eg. Chelmsford) or in the drier parts of the northern Transvaal (Emslie, pers. comm.). Once again this represents a remarkable effort by conservationists in the Subregion in removing a subspecies from the endangered category.
The folding of the skin is confined to an area above the knees, on the front limbs, across the nape behind the ears and on the flanks.
In overall colour they are dark grey. Like the elephant and the white rhinoceros, they tend to take on the colour of the ground on which they live, through their habit of wallowing in mud and dusting themselves after bathing.
Scattered over the surface of the skin are sweat glands which, when the individual is under stress, exude droplets of sweat.
South Africa. In both Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Acacia spp or their close relatives comprised at least half of the 10 most preferred species, and as they grew in size they became less and less preferred (Emslie & Adcock, 1990b). The most preferred species were A. gerrardii, A. senegal and A. borleae. The more common A. karroo and Dichrostachys cinerea were less preferred, but more important in the diet, accounting for about a fifth of woody browse eaten in summer. Despite the different species composition of the Umfolozi and Hluhluwe study areas, the striking feature of the black rhinoceros feeding was the very similar contribution to the diet by a number of important species that occurred in both areas (Table 296.1). Table 296.1 Percentage contribution of the top 10 woody species in the woody diet of black rhinoceros, D. bicornis, in the Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves (Emslie & Adcock, 1990b) Hluhluwe Umfolozi *Spirostachys africana 22,5 24,1 Acalypha glabrata 13,9 *Dichrostachys cinerea 10,8 10,5 *Acacia karroo 8,2 10,3 Berchemia zeyheri 6,1 Acacia caffra 5,2 *Acacia nilotica 3,8 4,7 *Acacia gerrardii 3,6 5,1 Hibiscus spp 3,4 *Maytenus nemorosa 3,2 3,1 Acacia borleae 5,4 Ehretia rigida 4,3 Acacia tortilis 4,3 Schotia capitata 2,9 Through browsing, rhinoceros prune the bushes on which they feed, so that they become rounded on the sides and top. The bushes show little sign of the breaking or tearing which characterises elephant feeding. In Kaokoland, Namibia, of the 103 plant species encountered, rhinoceros utilise 74 (Loutit, Louw & Seely, 1987). Apart from expected species such as Acacia albida, Euphorbia virosa was also fed upon and this plant and Merrernic, spp had the highest water content. The high tannin content and other defence mechanisms such as formidable spines on E. viroso did not deter the rhinoceros from eating them, nor did the very high crude fibre content of Comrniphora virgato, Sterculia africana and Euphorbia darnarana. However, in deserts, food selection may be influenced by other factors than nutritional value. For example, in parts of East Africa. Euphorbia tirucalli forms 70% of their diet during the dry season (Goddard, 1968), the rhinoceros obtaining their moisture requirements in this way. This was also the case with D.b. michaeli in the Addo National Park where they selected succulent plants with a high moisture content in the dry season (Hall-Martin, Erasmus & Botha, 1982). From studies undertaken in the Subregion, one can conclude that black rhinoceros feed on an unusually wide variety of species, and they are flexible, shifting their preferences according to availability of species. They can also utilise plants unavailable to other herbivores because of their formidable chemical and morphological defences. In the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe in the 1982/83 and 1983/84 wet seasons, rainfall was only about half the mean over 17 years. This resulted in reduced vegetative growth and at least 38 rhinoceros died of malnutrition in the subsequent dry seasons. Most (22) of these animals were under 10 years of age, with the next biggest category (18) being those 31-40 years of age (Dunham, 1985). This indicates how important it is not to exceed carrying capacity with species such as rhinoceros which cannot be translocated rapidly from one area to another. In the well-watered Hluhluwe Game Reserve, they drink nightly, as they do in the hot, dry months in the Etosha National Park, but in the cooler months they drink every second night (Owen-Smith, 1988).
White rhinoceros have poor sight but acute senses of smell and hearing. The ears which can be rotated independently, orientate quickly to face any strange sound and move continually, even when the individual is apparently asleep.
Having defecated, he scatters his dung by kicking with the back feet. Sometimes the urine emerges as a stream and the dung is deposited without scattering. These actions are common near territorial boundaries, but may take place anywhere within the territory.
They normally give way to elephants, but aggressive encounters during drought conditions at waterholes with these and with buffaloes have been recorded.
Oxpeckers, Buphagus spp, which frequent the backs of rhinoceros in search of ticks, flies and the blood issuing from these lesions, tend to keep the lesions open by their activities. The association of the rhinoceros with these birds has mutual benefits, for, by their loud chattering and calling, they alert the rhinoceros to danger, even when the animal is resting or sleeping.
Both lions and spotted hyaenas have been reported as attacking adults, with the outcome usually in favour of the rhinoceros. In parts of their distributional range predation on calves is a rare occurrence, but has been reported in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve in Natal (Deane, 1962), where Hitchins (1969) believed spotted hyaenas, Crocuta crocuta, take a toll of the young and Hitchins & Anderson (1983) provided circumstantial evidence to support this. Goddard (in Moss, 1976) witnessed five incidents in which spotted hyaenas tried unsuccessfully to pull down calves.
Black rhinoceros vocalise in a number of ways, the most commonly heard being the repeated loud snort given when the individual gets a fright or is angry. They grunt and growl when fighting and may squeal or scream loudly. The cow calls the calf by emitting a highpitched mew, while the calf, if it has strayed, calls the cow with a bellowing squeal.
At birth calves are lighter in colour than adults and are sparsely haired.
The thick skin is prominently folded on the front of the shoulders, on the upper part of the hind limbs and at the junction of the forelimbs and the body.
The thick skin is prominently folded on the front of the shoulders, on the upper part of the hind limbs and at the junction of the forelimbs and the body.
The skin on the body appears naked, but at close quarters is seen to have a sparse coating of bristly hairs.
They still exist in Kaokoland and Damaraland in northwestern Namibia, and in the eastern parts of the Etosha National Park.
They have a barrel shaped body and short, thick-set limbs. The limbs have three digits, each armed with broad, stout nails, which mark clearly in the spoor. The front feet are slightly larger than the hind. However, there is a less marked difference between them than in the black rhinoceros. The cushioned pads on the soles of the feet have a hard surface with a mosaic of irregular cracks and, characteristically, have a distinct indentation on their rear edges, which marks in the spoor, and distinguishes the spoor from that of the black rhinoceros in which the indentation is absent.
The horns, which are composed of a mass of tubular filaments similar in substance to hair, are outgrowths of the skin and are not attached to the bone of the skull. The front is almost invariably longer than the hind, 1,58 m being the record length of a front horn from the Subregion (Best & Best, 1977), its accompanying rear horn 0,566 m. In the white rhinoceros, C. s. simum, the front horn has a straighter transverse edge in front.
Four genera of fossil rhinoceros are known from the early Miocene Epoch of some 23 million to 19 million years ago, whose ancestors, at present unknown, must have lived during the Oligocene Epoch which preceded it. These four genera are Brachypotherium, Aceratherium, Dicerorhinus and Chilotherium. The two rhinoceros, the white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum, and the black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis, arose from a common ancestor and fossil remains recorded from Plio-Pleistocene beds of some four million to three million years old show that they occurred throughout Africa during this period. A fossil species, Ceratotherium praecox Hooijer & Patterson, 1972, whose remains have been recovered from fossil beds at Langebaanweg, was among the commoner of the large mammals in the assemblage, dating back some seven million years ago.
At that time no European was aware that two species occurred in Africa and this species did not have a distinguishing name. Names differentiating the two species must have come into use towards the end of the 18th century, when the hunters and pioneers entered the area north of the Orange River and first saw the white rhinoceros.
The colloquial name white rhinoceros is entrenched and originates from the name given to them by the early Dutch hunters, witte renoster, or in Afrikaans witrenoster, which was used to distinguish them from the black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis. Barrow (1801/4), Harris (1852) and Selous (1908) used the name wit or white, so it has been in use for nearly 200 years. In spite of this, both C. simum and D. bicornis are grey, and they are inclined to assume the colour of the soil on which they live through mudwallowing and dusting.
Characteristic features include the long head with long, continually growing horns.
They have a simple stomach, and digestion of herbage takes place mainly in the voluminous sacculated caecum where most fermentation takes place (Clemens & Maloiy, 1982). They browse, manoeuvering food into their mouths with the aid of the prehensile upper lip, biting shoots off with the premolar teeth and grinding the food in the massive molar teet'n. They will push over higher growth to obtain edible parts. Sticks and thorns are included in the diet, different parts of different plants being utilised. In some cases only the outer tips of the shoots are taken, in others the twigs as well. Small forbs which grow low on the ground are also eaten and small quantities of grass are taken at certain times of the year, usually during the wet season (Moss, 1976). They are selective feeders and generally reject dry plant material (Goddard, 1968).
The skin is thick, with a sparse scattering of hairs.
Black rhinoceros suffer from skin lesions caused by a filaria parasite. At their fullest development these lesions take the form of black, blood-encrusted areas which ulcerate and haemorrhage. Usually these are situated on the skin behind the shoulders, but also occur on the chest, neck and forelegs. All adult Natal black rhinoceros have these lesions, but they are absent in rhinos from central Africa (LeaderWilliams, pers. comm.) and are not found on desert rhinoceros in Namibia, no doubt due to the absence of flies that serve as specific vectors for the parasite (du Toit, pers. comm.). The calves are free of these until they are about six months old, when the lesions begin to appear as bare pink patches on their chests. By the age of three years they are found on the chest and sides, but only appear behind the shoulders of the individual at the age of four and a half to five years. These lesions are not related to their state of health and appear on perfectly healthy individuals (Feely, pers. comm.). Oxpeckers, Buphagus spp, which frequent the backs of rhinoceros in search of ticks, flies and the blood issuing from these lesions, tend to keep the lesions open by their activities.
The skin is thick, with a sparse scattering of hairs. They have eyelashes and hairy fringes to the ears and the end of the tail.
Gestation period. 15 months
White rhinoceros occur in small groups consisting of a single dominant or territorial bull, subordinate bulls, cows and their offspring.
Females have a pair of inguinal mammae.
pointed ears fringed with hair
Characteristic features include the long head with long, continually growing horns.
a distinct hump on the back, just in front of the thighs.
While ancestral forms of rhinoceros possessed cutting incisor teeth and, in some, canines, these are absent in the black rhinoceros whose dental formula is: I 0/0, C 0/0, P 3/3, m 3/3 = 24 The premolar teeth are molariform, all the cheekteeth being broad-faced and adapted to grinding up the food.
The black rhinoceros requires a habitat providing adequate shrubs and young trees up to about 4 m high, including well developed woodland or thickets in which to shelter during the heat of the day or in inclement weather. A water supply, not only for drinking but also in which to bathe and mud-wallow, is also important. While not usually associated with open plains country, the black rhinoceros occurs in a wide range of habitats ranging from forest to savanna woodland and scrub, from sea level to at least 1 500 m in the Subregion and up to 2 700 m in East Africa (Kingdon, 1979). They are dependent on water and, in the Subregion, are seldom found more than 10 or 15 km from it. Kingdon (1979) stated that in East Africa the maximum dry season distance from water was found to be about 25 km. Where it is not available, they will dig for it in the sand in river beds, excavating with their forelegs. The early stages of bush encroachment favour this species, especially if this is coupled with heavy grazing (Emslie, pers. comm.). However, later successional trends from closed Acacia nilotica woodland to lowland forest dominated by Euclea schimperi, Berchemia zeyheri and Rhus pentheri have reduced habitat quality in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, and is likely to have contributed to the decline in the Hluhluwe population which has taken place over the last 20 years. Interestingly many of the most rejected species (e.g. Euclea crispa, Lippia javctnica) in Hluhluwe have grown up on bush-cleared sites in wetter, low-lying sites. By way of contrast favourable food plants have grown up in cleared sites in drier areas of the complex. In addition, Emslie has found grass interference to be very important. Black rhinoceros prefer the smaller sizes of Acacias but when these are hidden they are forced to eat the larger and less preferred plants. They avoid feeding in the tall grass areas of northern Hluhluwe, except along paths. In both Hluhluwe and Umfolozi young tamboti, Spirostachys africana, thickets were key habitats, with S. africana being the dominant item in the black rhinoceros summer diet, accounting for between 20-25% of woody browse eaten. Emslie & Adcock (lggob) also found that size structure changes in the vegetation were important to the rhinoceros even if the species composition remained very similar (e.g. mature S. africana and Acacia grandicornuta woodland was rejected). Riverine bush, tamboti thickets, ridges and lowland forest margin habitat were amongst the most preferred habitats in Hluhluwe. In Umfolozi one of the most preferred habitats was heavily grazed short grass country with a few small Acacias.
In the first two years of their lives mortality is high. Goddard (1966) estimated that there was about a 16% loss, caused by predation by lions and spotted hyaenas or lowered resistance to disease caused by lack of food or water.
Communication within the species depends heavily on olfactory signals (urine and dung constituents), which individual rhinoceros detect through their sensitive sense of smell as they cross the paths of other members of their community, and encounter their dung middens.
Subordinate bulls are tolerated by a territorial bull, providing they remain submissive, and they spend most of their lives within his territory, although they make occasional explorations outside it. Several subordinate bulls may live in a territory of a single territorial bull.
South Africa. In both Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Acacia spp or their close relatives comprised at least half of the 10 most preferred species, and as they grew in size they became less and less preferred (Emslie & Adcock, 1990b). The most preferred species were A. gerrardii, A. senegal and A. borleae. The more common A. karroo and Dichrostachys cinerea were less preferred, but more important in the diet, accounting for about a fifth of woody browse eaten in summer. Despite the different species composition of the Umfolozi and Hluhluwe study areas, the striking feature of the black rhinoceros feeding was the very similar contribution to the diet by a number of important species that occurred in both areas (Table 296.1). Table 296.1 Percentage contribution of the top 10 woody species in the woody diet of black rhinoceros, D. bicornis, in the Hluhluwe and Umfolozi Game Reserves (Emslie & Adcock, 1990b) Hluhluwe Umfolozi *Spirostachys africana 22,5 24,1 Acalypha glabrata 13,9 *Dichrostachys cinerea 10,8 10,5 *Acacia karroo 8,2 10,3 Berchemia zeyheri 6,1 Acacia caffra 5,2 *Acacia nilotica 3,8 4,7 *Acacia gerrardii 3,6 5,1 Hibiscus spp 3,4 *Maytenus nemorosa 3,2 3,1 Acacia borleae 5,4 Ehretia rigida 4,3 Acacia tortilis 4,3 Schotia capitata 2,9 Through browsing, rhinoceros prune the bushes on which they feed, so that they become rounded on the sides and top. The bushes show little sign of the breaking or tearing which characterises elephant feeding. In Kaokoland, Namibia, of the 103 plant species encountered, rhinoceros utilise 74 (Loutit, Louw & Seely, 1987). Apart from expected species such as Acacia albida, Euphorbia virosa was also fed upon and this plant and Merrernic, spp had the highest water content. The high tannin content and other defence mechanisms such as formidable spines on E. viroso did not deter the rhinoceros from eating them, nor did the very high crude fibre content of Comrniphora virgato, Sterculia africana and Euphorbia darnarana. However, in deserts, food selection may be influenced by other factors than nutritional value. For example, in parts of East Africa. Euphorbia tirucalli forms 70% of their diet during the dry season (Goddard, 1968), the rhinoceros obtaining their moisture requirements in this way. This was also the case with D.b. michaeli in the Addo National Park where they selected succulent plants with a high moisture content in the dry season (Hall-Martin, Erasmus & Botha, 1982). From studies undertaken in the Subregion, one can conclude that black rhinoceros feed on an unusually wide variety of species, and they are flexible, shifting their preferences according to availability of species. They can also utilise plants unavailable to other herbivores because of their formidable chemical and morphological defences. In the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe in the 1982/83 and 1983/84 wet seasons, rainfall was only about half the mean over 17 years. This resulted in reduced vegetative growth and at least 38 rhinoceros died of malnutrition in the subsequent dry seasons. Most (22) of these animals were under 10 years of age, with the next biggest category (18) being those 31-40 years of age (Dunham, 1985). This indicates how important it is not to exceed carrying capacity with species such as rhinoceros which cannot be translocated rapidly from one area to another. In the well-watered Hluhluwe Game Reserve, they drink nightly, as they do in the hot, dry months in the Etosha National Park, but in the cooler months they drink every second night (Owen-Smith, 1988).
Black rhinoceros deposit their dung in latrines but will also defecate on paths or fortuitously anywhere in their home range. The latrines may be used by a number of individuals. Usually a small bush marks the centre of the latrine. After deposition the dung is vigorously scraped by the bulls with alternate kicks of the hind feet which leave scrape marks on the ground which, in soft ground, may reach a depth of 0.3 m (Feely, in litt.). Possibly the adherence of portions of the dung to the hind feet may mark the presence of the individual on tracks. In northern Natal, many latrines are used by both species of rhinoceros (Feely, in litt.). Smell is very important to rhinoceros and they have been observed to change direction by 90 degrees to investigate the presence of strange rhinoceros (Emslie, pers. comm.).
While they have a reputation for being irascible and bad-tempered, this depends on circumstances and the individual. Normally human scent will make them move off, but their reactions depend on whether they have been hunted or harried, or left in peace, and they do sometimes charge from 50 to 70 m away. A charging black rhinoceros may swing away from a rifle shot or, at closer quarters, to a loud shout, and they seldom return to press home an attack. They are unlikely to charge uphill and like to retreat into cover. When seriously annoyed or when wounded they may work out their anger on inanimate objects such as bushes or termite mounds, attacking them with lowered horns, and demolishing them.
Black rhinoceros are not strictly territorial in the sense of defending delimited areas against others of their species,
Urination may take place in a fine stream or the urine may be ejected by the bulls in a spray in short bursts, backwards on to a bush or other object. Cows likewise, when moving, may squirt small quantities of urine. Spraying of urine may have the effect of advertising the individual's presence in an area.
During the heat of day they retire to the shade of thickets or woodland to sleep, either standing motionless or lying with their legs curled under them. They tend to rest on the tops of ridges but they will also lie in dusty hollows, sometimes in the full sun, or by water holes or mud wallows. Sometimes, they sleep lying flat on their sides, a position never adopted by the white rhinoceros (Feely, in litt.). As they are unable to roll right over, they wallow in mud or dust on one side, then rise, and wallow on the other side. While asleep the ears move restlessly, rotating in all directions, or flick quickly from back to front. In Hluhluwe females and males were active most of the night, but only for a third to half of the day respectively (Owen-Smith, 1988).
Black rhinoceros tend to be solitary, the only stable bond being between the female and her calf, but even this is only of a temporary nature, persisting into the female's next pregnancy and ceasing altogether with the birth of her next calf. Other associations, such as that of an adult male with a female, or with a number of individuals of all age classes, are transitory.
Two subspecies are recognised, C. s. simum from the southern part of their distributional range and C. s. cottoni (Lydekker, 1908) from central Africa which are somewhat higher in the legs and less long in the body (Cave, 1962).
The skin on the body appears naked, but at close quarters is seen to have a sparse coating of bristly hairs.
The colour of the skin is grey, but like that of the elephant. is often obscured by a coating of soil or mud. At birth the wrinkled skin is pale grey with a pink tinge.
They appear heavy-footed when walking, but are extraordinarily agile when provoked. At a gallop they can cover the ground at speed and can spin around within their own length.
White rhinoceros have poor sight but acute senses of smell and hearing. They respond more readily to moving objects, which are only discerned at ranges of 10-25 m, than to those at rest.
White rhinoceros have poor sight but acute senses of smell and hearing. Owen-Smith (1973) recorded that when downwind, they respond with alertness to human scent at about 0,8 km, and continually investigate odours when moving.
The colloquial name white rhinoceros is entrenched and originates from the name given to them by the early Dutch hunters, witte renoster, or in Afrikaans witrenoster, which was used to distinguish them from the black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis. Barrow (1801/4), Harris (1852) and Selous (1908) used the name wit or white, so it has been in use for nearly 200 years. In spite of this, both C. simum and D. bicornis are grey, and they are inclined to assume the colour of the soil on which they live through mudwallowing and dusting.
At that time no European was aware that two species occurred in Africa and this species did not have a distinguishing name. Names differentiating the two species must have come into use towards the end of the 18th century, when the hunters and pioneers entered the area north of the Orange River and first saw the white rhinoceros.
Although adult bulls are inclined to be aggressive towards other bulls, they deliberately tend to avoid contact. Serious fighting, however, does take place, especially between bulls over a female in oestrus, between bulls and cows, but rarely between cows. There is a higher mortality in males (11 cases) than females (five cases) (Hitchins & Anderson, 1983). In meetings between bulls there may be some testing behaviour, which takes the form of one rushing forward with lowered head and screaming, to simply lifting the head and staring. A bull will approach a cow with a stiff-legged gait, head swinging from side to side, or may jerk the horn in the air. If the cow shows signs of aggression, the bull usually retires. In fighting, the front horn is used to buffet the other, the action taking place with tail raised, ears flattened and with much screaming and squealing.
They normally give way to elephants, but aggressive encounters during drought conditions at waterholes with these and with buffaloes have been recorded.
Both lions and spotted hyaenas have been reported as attacking adults, with the outcome usually in favour of the rhinoceros. The cow will defend her young vigorously. Goddard (1966) witnessed a cow killing a lion in these circumstances.
Fork-tailed drongos, Dicrurus adsimilis, often hawk insects by flying along the sides of resting rhinoceros and frequently they are accompanied by red-billed oxpeckers, Buphagus erythrorhynchus, which remove ticks from their hides. Terrapins may also remove ticks while rhinoceros are wallowing in a pan. The birds serve the useful purpose of warning them of approaching danger.
During the summer months, white rhinoceros indulge in mud-wallowing or lying in muddy pools as a means of thermoregulation, but more especially for the purpose of coating the body with a layer of mud as a means of ridding themselves of ecto-parasites. Following mud-wallowing they will rub themselves on the trunks of trees or boulders which eventually, through continued use as rubbing posts, become debarked and polished. Mud-wallowing is infrequent during the winter months (Owen-Smith, 1973).
Thick skin. The skin may reach a thickness of about 20 mm on the shoulders. The thick dermis covered with a thin laser of epidermis barely 1 mm thick. Scattered over the surface of the skin are sweat glands which, when the individual is under stress, exude droplets of sweat. Underlying the skin there is a thick layer of fat which, on the abdomen, may reach a thickness of 50 mm. Bigalke, Steyn, de Vos & de Waard (1950) recorded that the outer horny layer of the skin is moulted at about one and a half to four months, revealing a new paler skin. A further moult takes place at about 10 months.
The tail is relatively short, in adults up to about 1,0 m, and has a sparse fringe of bristly hair.
The limbs have three digits each, with broad, stout nails which mark clearly in the spoor. The front feet are larger than the hind as they have to carry the great mass of the huge shoulders, neck and head. The cushioned pads on the soles of the feet have a hard surface with a mosaic of irregular cracks. In Kenya, Rob Brett has been able to identify individuals based on photographs of the wrinkle patterns left behind in the spoor. The pads are rounded at the back and lack the indentation characteristic of the white rhinoceros. This aids in distinguishing the spoor of the two species, as does the size of the nails which are larger in the white rhinoceros.
Some characteristic features which serve to distinguish them from their near relative, the white rhinoceros, Ceratotheriurn simum, include their possession of a prehensile upper lip (Fig. 296.1), which is used in grasping the twigs of the woody plants on which they feed,
The horns are composed of a mass of tubular filaments, similar in substance to hair. They grow from the skin and are not attached to the underlying bone, but the bony surface of the skull is rugose under the bases of the horns to allow a firm attachment of the skin to the skull in these areas. The shape of the horns also depends upon the habitat. Horns in Kaokoveld for example are much straighter than those in Zululand, presumably as a result of different wear patterns.
Bulls start holding territories at an age of 12,5 years (Condy, 1973) and can detect when cows are in pro-oestrus for they form a close attachment with a cow for a considerable time before mating. During this period bulls will take active steps to prevent cows from leaving their territory, chasing cows, squealing and sometimes horn-clashing with a pro-oestrous cow until she remains. While in pro-oestrus she will drive him off with snarling and snorting. Interested subordinate males are driven off actively by the territorial bull during this period (Owen-Smith, 1973).
In overall colour they are dark grey. Like the elephant and the white rhinoceros, they tend to take on the colour of the ground on which they live, through their habit of wallowing in mud and dusting themselves after bathing.
The horns, which are composed of a mass of tubular filaments similar in substance to hair, are outgrowths of the skin and are not attached to the bone of the skull. The front is almost invariably longer than the hind, 1,58 m being the record length of a front horn from the Subregion (Best & Best, 1977), its accompanying rear horn 0,566 m. In the white rhinoceros, C. s. simum, the front horn has a straighter transverse edge in front.
a distinct hump on the back, just in front of the thighs.
They have a barrel shaped body and short, thick-set limbs. The limbs have three digits, each armed with broad, stout nails, which mark clearly in the spoor. The front feet are slightly larger than the hind. However, there is a less marked difference between them than in the black rhinoceros. The cushioned pads on the soles of the feet have a hard surface with a mosaic of irregular cracks and, characteristically, have a distinct indentation on their rear edges, which marks in the spoor, and distinguishes the spoor from that of the black rhinoceros in which the indentation is absent.
pointed ears fringed with hair
They have a simple stomach, and digestion of herbage takes place mainly in the voluminous sacculated caecum where most fermentation takes place (Clemens & Maloiy, 1982). They browse, manoeuvering food into their mouths with the aid of the prehensile upper lip, biting shoots off with the premolar teeth and grinding the food in the massive molar teet'n. They will push over higher growth to obtain edible parts. Sticks and thorns are included in the diet, different parts of different plants being utilised. In some cases only the outer tips of the shoots are taken, in others the twigs as well. Small forbs which grow low on the ground are also eaten and small quantities of grass are taken at certain times of the year, usually during the wet season (Moss, 1976). They are selective feeders and generally reject dry plant material (Goddard, 1968).
One of the most obvious characters that differentiates them is the square lips of C. simum (Fig. 295.1) and the hooked, prehensile upper lip of D. bicornis, which are adaptations to and in their feeding habits, and they may also be referred to in this way.
Some characteristic features which serve to distinguish them from their near relative, the white rhinoceros, Ceratotheriurn simum, include their possession of a prehensile upper lip (Fig. 296.1), which is used in grasping the twigs of the woody plants on which they feed, the shorter head, longer neck and smaller, rounded ears. The outline of the back is also different in the two species, the black rhinoceros lacking the nuchal hump, which is a well developed and obvious feature of the white rhinoceros (Fig. 296.2). The black rhinoceros carries its shorter head higher than the white rhinoceros.
Cows on the other hand have home ranges that overlap with those of other cows and may overlap the territories of as many as seven territorial bulls (Owen-Smith, 1973). In areas with good grazing and water the home range of individual cows may be as small as 6-8 km? . With deteriorating food supplies this may increase to 10-15 km? and, if there is no water available, be increased to 20 km?.
The dental formula of the white rhinoceros, C. simum, is: I 0/0, C 0/0, P 3/3, M 3/3 = 24
Black rhinoceros are not strictly territorial in the sense of defending delimited areas against others of their species, but each adult does tend to remain within a specific home range which may overlap with the home ranges of other members of the population. The size of a bull rhinoceros' home range and its location (relative to waterpoints, female home ranges and other features of importance to the species), is determined by the dominance status of the individual, the establishment of which may involve some fighting when the animals are living at medium to high densities in typical bushveld situations (du Toit, pers. comm.). The size of their home ranges differs according to sex, age and the type of habitat, immature animals usually occupying larger areas than adults. In the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Hitchins (1969) found that the size of the home range varied according to the nature of the habitat. Where there is a high proportion of thicket and dense stands of woody plants, a young female had a home range of some 3 000 ha in Umfolozi (Emslie & Adcock, 1990a). In Hluhluwe, Hitchins found home ranges to be smaller at 500 to 750 ha. Hitchins (1969) found that they do not occupy territories in the sense of areas exclusively held and defended against other black rhinoceros. Joubert (1969) believed that in Namibia the size of the home range varies with the density of the population as well as the availability of food and cover. Where their feeding areas are far from water, they are nomadic in habit and will share tracks, feeding and resting sites and water supplies with others. Loutit (1984) estimated the home range size as about 500 km? in Kaokoland.
The skin is thick, with a sparse scattering of hairs. They have eyelashes and hairy fringes to the ears and the end of the tail.
Scattered throughout the skin are sweat glands which exude droplets of sweat when the individual is under stress.
Predation on them, except by man, is minimal, although rarely they may be killed by lions.
They tend to use established routes to water or to preferred grazing areas.
Within the territory the dominant bull usually has a number of favourite resting places in which he lies up in the shade during the heat of the day, either standing or reclining on his belly or side. In cool cloudy weather with high winds they tend to shelter in thickets. Cows and subadults do not seem so prone to use established sheltering places as do territorial bulls.
A fossil species, Ceratotherium praecox Hooijer & Patterson, 1972, whose remains have been recovered from fossil beds at Langebaanweg, was among the commoner of the large mammals in the assemblage, dating back some seven million years ago. The earliest known fossil form of the species, Ceratotherium praecox Hooijer & Patterson, 1972, has been recorded from Langebaanweg, Cape Province. In other parts of Africa this species is known from fossil beds laid down some seven million years ago. It has four incisor teeth which are lacking in the extant white rhinoceros.
For the first three days following parturition the calf is unsteady on its feet, thereafter it keeps close to its protective mother.
While seven subspecies have been described (Groves, 1967), more recent research (du Toit, 1987) has not supported this degree of taxonomic splitting, and the African Elephant and Rhino Specialist Group (of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature) now recognizes four conservation units within the continent (du Toit, Foose & Cumming, 1987). These are a northwestern group in Cameroun and the Central African Republic (it is no longer certain if any of these survive), an eastern group in Kenya and northern Tanzania (designated as D. b. rnichaeli), a desert group in Namibia (D. b. bicornis), and the relatively large bushveld group extending from Natal through Zimbabwe and Zambia into southern Tanzania (D. b. minor).
The folding of the skin is confined to an area above the knees, on the front limbs, across the nape behind the ears and on the flanks.
A mass of up to about 1000 kg. The mean mass of live individuals from the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, Natal is males 852 kg (n=8), females 884 kg (n=6) (Hitchins, 1968b).
The horns are composed of a mass of tubular filaments, similar in substance to hair. They grow from the skin and are not attached to the underlying bone, but the bony surface of the skull is rugose under the bases of the horns to allow a firm attachment of the skin to the skull in these areas. The shape of the horns also depends upon the habitat. Horns in Kaokoveld for example are much straighter than those in Zululand, presumably as a result of different wear patterns.
The upper and lower second molars are the largest of the cheekteeth. All cheekteeth are broad-faced and have convoluted enamel layers on their biting surfaces and are adapted to grinding up the food. In the deciduous dentition they have four premolars on either side in the upper and lower jaws, the anterior premolar being the last to erupt and which, in adolescence, is lost and not replaced. Some, however, may persist into early adulthood. There is no sign of the incisors or canines in the deciduous dentition, which are sometimes present in the black rhinoceros, D. bicornis.
The oestrous cycle length is approximately 28 days (n=5) based on the inter-oestrus intervals and hormonal profiles of captive C. s. cottoni
At birth calves are lighter in colour than adults and are sparsely haired.
Thick skin. The skin may reach a thickness of about 20 mm on the shoulders. The thick dermis covered with a thin laser of epidermis barely 1 mm thick. Scattered over the surface of the skin are sweat glands which, when the individual is under stress, exude droplets of sweat. Underlying the skin there is a thick layer of fat which, on the abdomen, may reach a thickness of 50 mm. Bigalke, Steyn, de Vos & de Waard (1950) recorded that the outer horny layer of the skin is moulted at about one and a half to four months, revealing a new paler skin. A further moult takes place at about 10 months.
The maximum front horn length recorded by Best & Best (1977) for a specimen from northern Natal is 1,05 m, with a rear horn of 0,52 m, which is surpassed by several from East Africa where the maximum is 1,20 m and 0,445 m respectively.
In Zululand the front horn in black rhinoceros is invariably longer than the back. In Hluhluwe-Umfolozi in 1973 only 2,5% of males had anterior horns = posterior, and none shorter (n=120). For females the figures are 14,2% and 5,7% (n=106). For 1985 the figures are for males 0% and 0% (n=58) and females 29,0% and 4,3% (n=69) (Hitchins, 1989).
The limbs have three digits each, with broad, stout nails which mark clearly in the spoor. The front feet are larger than the hind as they have to carry the great mass of the huge shoulders, neck and head. The cushioned pads on the soles of the feet have a hard surface with a mosaic of irregular cracks. In Kenya, Rob Brett has been able to identify individuals based on photographs of the wrinkle patterns left behind in the spoor. The pads are rounded at the back and lack the indentation characteristic of the white rhinoceros. This aids in distinguishing the spoor of the two species, as does the size of the nails which are larger in the white rhinoceros.
Some characteristic features which serve to distinguish them from their near relative, the white rhinoceros, Ceratotheriurn simum, include their possession of a prehensile upper lip (Fig. 296.1), which is used in grasping the twigs of the woody plants on which they feed,
The skin is thick, with a sparse scattering of hairs.
Females breed from an age of four years
Calving intervals in Hluhluwe were 44 months and in Umfolozi 30 months.
Hitchins & Anderson (1983) found that females may produce calves when only 6,5 years of age, but this is exceptional and they usually only conceive after seven years of age.
The calf is weaned at about a year old and separates from its mother at about two or three years of age. If the female loses her next calf, the bond between them may be reestablished.
White rhinoceros breed at any time of the year, but in Natal there are peaks of calving in March & July.
Black rhinoceros may breed at any time of the year in the Subregion. In the Hluhluwe/ Umfolozi Game Reserve there are minor peaks in births in January and again from June to August.
The female usually moves away from the group to give birth.
Black rhinoceros suffer from skin lesions caused by a filaria parasite. At their fullest development these lesions take the form of black, blood-encrusted areas which ulcerate and haemorrhage. Usually these are situated on the skin behind the shoulders, but also occur on the chest, neck and forelegs. All adult Natal black rhinoceros have these lesions, but they are absent in rhinos from central Africa (LeaderWilliams, pers. comm.) and are not found on desert rhinoceros in Namibia, no doubt due to the absence of flies that serve as specific vectors for the parasite (du Toit, pers. comm.). The calves are free of these until they are about six months old, when the lesions begin to appear as bare pink patches on their chests. By the age of three years they are found on the chest and sides, but only appear behind the shoulders of the individual at the age of four and a half to five years. These lesions are not related to their state of health and appear on perfectly healthy individuals (Feely, pers. comm.). Oxpeckers, Buphagus spp, which frequent the backs of rhinoceros in search of ticks, flies and the blood issuing from these lesions, tend to keep the lesions open by their activities.
Burchell (1817) originally described this species from a specimen from 'the interior of South Africa', the type locality later being fixed by Shortridge (1934) as near Kuruman, Cape Province.
The tail is relatively short, in adults up to about 1,0 m, and has a sparse fringe of bristly hair.
Weight some 2 000-2 300 kg for males and females 1 600 kg
The skull of this species is less elongated, the supraoccipital crest not extending upwards and backwards to the extent seen in the white rhinoceros. The occipital crest lacks the broad rugose area on top seen in the white rhinoceros and is narrower. The zygomatic arches are heavily built to give a firm attachment for the masseter muscles that activate the massive lower jaw.
Adult black rhinoceros stand about 1,6 m at the shoulder
The skull is more elongated in this species than in the black rhinoceros, the occipital crest rising high at the back of the skull. The crest has a broad rugose area on top to provide a firm attachment for the huge muscles that actuate the raising and lowering of the heavy head. The high crest also provides for a broad area at the back of the skull for the attachment of the other neck muscles. The zygomatic arches are heavily built to give a firm attachment for the masseter muscles that actuate the lower jaw, which, at their posterior edges, broaden out to give these an extra wide area of attachment for the lower end of these muscles. The lower jaw is massive, particularly so at the level of the posterior angle, the condyles very broad and fitting into deep sockets.
With a shoulder height of up to 1,8 m for males and 1,77 m for females (Kirby, 1920)
The front is almost invariably longer than the hind, 1,58 m being the record length of a front horn from the Subregion (Best & Best, 1977), its accompanying rear horn 0,566 m.
