This has been incorporated into present management practices such as the policy of not introducing new animals into established home ranges, rather creating vacant areas within the sanctuary through fencing or purchasing surrounding land and later dropping the fences once the newcomers are established. This method was successfully undertaken with the reintroduction of a black rhino into Augrabies National Park from a zoo in Portugal. The repatriation of D. b. bicornis populations into two arid South African national parks (Augrabies and Vaalbos) in 1985 and 1987, respectively, was the initial phase of a plan by the NPB to repatriate the correct ecotype to its former range in South Africa (Fig. 1 & 2). Thus, the initial founding population of 12 animals (plus a further two added later) brought in from Etosha was subdivided between two satellite parks, Augrabies and Vaalbos, with a plan to interchange individuals, particularly breeding males, once the first generation reached breeding age. The population has increased at a rate of 5 % per annum to reach a total of 20 animals. Although one unsuccessful exchange between the two parks has been done, five unrelated individuals from both parks have been used to establish a third population in the Karoo National Park in the last two years (Fig. 2). The incorporation of the later park makes the possibility of increasing the maximum founder population (MFP) for the three parks to about 20 animals, thus maximizing their reproductive potential.
Although relatively few rhino (13 white rhino Ceratotherium simum simum and 1 black rhino) have been illegally hunted over the last two years within the KNP, the general prognosis is that the number of incidences is showing an upward trend (Greef pers comm.r,). This is expected to be fuelled by the cessation of hostilities and the free availability of automatic weapons in Mozambique. If the crash of the large Zimbabwean rhino population in their extensive conservation areas as a result of a concerted poaching onslaught is anything to go by, the KNP rhino population is in great danger. Even the presence of well-trained and relatively well-equipped anti-poaching units at a density of 1 man/50 km? did little to halt the decline of the Zimbabwean population. Although, the security staff density in the KNP is higher at about 1 man/27 km? (Table 2), it is still below the minimum of 1 man/l0-20 km? to be sufficient in deterring poaching. Maintaining such high levels of security in large areas such as Kruger is very expensive, and beyond what any other African range states have been able to afford, hence the loss of their large free-ranging rhino populations. But as to whether South Africa, even in the face of declining conservation budgets and a new political order, can maintain such high standards is debatable. It may be necessary to seek extra funds from outside organisations in the future. The option of continuing to protect rhino populations at such high total expense in an area as large as Kruger may seem a viable option at the moment, but with declining funds, so the intensity will either have to be down-graded as a whole, or concentrated into specific areas, which approaches the concept of small area protection. Although potentially more expensive (per km? ) than the large conservation area option, sanctuaries have worked well in saving the Kenyan rhino populations during the time of crisis. Thus, attention should be given to possibly implementing alternative proposals, such as establishing a number of IPZs or sanctuaries within KNP, as well as supplementing other parks and reserves. Although the development of sanctuaries is a short-term option with respect to population management and viability, it would grant important extra time to explore and develop local longer-term options based upon game utilization and awareness campaigns within surrounding communities, home to most of the poachers.
The introduction of black rhino into the smaller national parks commenced almost a decade prior to the KNP operation. With no D.b. minor available from Natal at the time, seven of the eastern ecotype D.b. michaeli were introduced from Kenya to Addo Elephant National Park in 1961-62 making it the the first 'black rhino sanctuary' established in South Africa through relocation of animals. In spite of initial poor management the population has grown to be the fifth largest population of this subspecies in Africa - hence its importance internationally and locally. The highly nutritious succulent thicket vegetation in Addo offers some of the most productive black rhino and elephant habitat in South Africa, and possibly Africa. The park comfortably supports densities of 2 elephant/ km? at present, while rhinos have been stocked, without signs of overt aggression, in the past at densities of ca 3 rhino/ km? which is greater than some of the highest free-ranging densities reported. The presently recommended density of 0,5 rhino/ km? (or a total of ce 40 animals), errs on the more conservative side, but still exceeds densities recommended from any other area in South Africa. Monitoring the reproductive history and to some degree behaviour of all individuals since their introduction has given valuable insights into the management of rhinos in small parks. This has been incorporated into present management practices such as the policy of not introducing new animals into established home ranges, rather creating vacant areas within the sanctuary through fencing or purchasing surrounding land and later dropping the fences once the newcomers are established. This method was successfully undertaken with the reintroduction of a black rhino into Augrabies National Park from a zoo in Portugal. The proposals to remove the D. b. michaeli from Addo and to make the productive habitat available for the conservation of the locally more important and rarer D. b. bicornis, would further the conservation effort of this subspecies. The NPB's policy change concerning the D. b. michaeli population stems from a desire to conserve only indigenous taxa in each park. Furthermore, the fact that the Kenyan populations are on the increase, and that there is increasing danger to the Namibian populations has strengthened the argument to remove the Addo population. The proposed selling of the Addo rhino is designed to cover costs associated with capture and transport, purchase of extra D. b. bicomis from Namibia, fencing and the purchase of further land in the Addo vicinity to house the incoming rhinos. Thus the money would go directly back into rhino conservation, an added advantage and incentive in any wildlife programme, made possible with the NPB's financial independence arising from their statutory status.
During 1993 two animals were repatriated to Liwonde National Park in Malawi.
map for Diceros bicornis in Southern Africa, historical distribution (separating D.b.bicornis and D.b. minor)
Thus, the initial founding population of 12 animals (plus a further two added later) brought in from Etosha was subdivided between two satellite parks, Augrabies and Vaalbos, with a plan to interchange individuals, particularly breeding males, once the first generation reached breeding age. The population has increased at a rate of 5 % per annum to reach a total of 20 animals. Although one unsuccessful exchange between the two parks has been done, five unrelated individuals from both parks have been used to establish a third population in the Karoo National Park in the last two years (Fig. 2). The incorporation of the later park makes the possibility of increasing the maximum founder population (MFP) for the three parks to about 20 animals, thus maximizing their reproductive potential.
Two black rhino subspecies, the south-western ecotype D. b. bicornis and the southern ecotype D. b. minor, historically occurred in South Africa. (Fig. 1). The former subspecies was exterminated from the country by 1853, only to survive in relatively small isolated populations in Namibia where through the efforts of conservation authorities and non-government organisations the subspecies has been saved. The southern ecotype was similarly shot out throughout most of its range in South Africa, except for in the Hluhluwe-Umfolozi and Mkuzi areas of Zululand, where the work of earlier game authorities, later taken on by the Natal Parks Board, saved these small remaining populations.
During 1993 two animals were repatriated to Liwonde National Park in Malawi, and a further four went to Marakele National Park. During 1994 an additional five animals are to be removed from KNP to supplement the Marakele population
Definition of Rhino Conservancy: A relatively large fenced off area of land (up to ce 1000 km'), generally encompassing a number of private properties. Security is normally provided by the landowners. The Save and Bubiana Conservancies in Zimbabwe are good examples.
The last original Kruger black rhino was seen in 1936.
The last original Kruger black rhino was seen in 1936 . Between 1971 and 1988 a total of 82 animals were repatriated to the Southern District of the KNP from Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, Mkuzi and Ndumu Game Reserves in Natal, the Zambezi Valley in Zimbabwe, and from the ZimbabweMozambique border area north of the KNP (Fig. 2). The population has increased to 200 years). Moreover, with the founders originating from four separate original populations, the KN P D. b. minor population is genetically the most diverse in South Africa. Since their introduction the policy of non-intervention has been advocated, with the objective of allowing the population to increase as rapidly as possible. Because of Kruger's large size and the wide range of suitable black rhino habitats, it has the potential to become the largest population in South Africa with more than 3000 animals (Table 1), hence its importance in the regional conservation plan. The population has only been monitored through the annual aerial survey of the park. Like similar aerial surveys of other savanna systems, this has unfortunately proved unsuccessful in effectively estimating rhino population sizes (Viljoen pers comm.). However, more precise estimates of population increase, inter-calving intervals, dispersion patterns not obtainable from the wider survey were estimated through the monitoring a specific subpopulation (of which some of the animals were fitted with radio transmitters) in the Skukuza area on a more regular basis over a number of years. Although the sample was restricted to a single subpopulation it reflected a locally healthy population situation which is probably not found elsewhere in the park owing to a distorted sex ratio in favour of males. Hopefully, in the near future, the 'mark-recapture' monitoring programme RHINO, that involves ranger sighting returns, would be implemented to supplement the aerial census data. As the population is very much in its initial growth stages and expansion, transfers of animals from the park has not been advocated. However, during 1993 two animals were repatriated to Liwonde National Park in Malawi, and a further four went to Marakele National Park. During 1994 an additional five animals are to be removed from KNP to supplement the Marakele population (Fig. 2). Most of these animals have and will be in the future removed from unstable border areas where the chances of illegal hunting are greatest (Pienaar pers comm.) Source of animals indicated in figure 2: Mozambique-Zimbabwe border 2 1960's Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe 13 1972 Ndumu 10 1989 Mkuzi 2 1981 Hluhluwe-Umfolozi 55 1971-1982 End
Thus, the initial founding population of 12 animals (plus a further two added later) brought in from Etosha was subdivided between two satellite parks, Augrabies and Vaalbos, with a plan to interchange individuals, particularly breeding males, once the first generation reached breeding age. The population has increased at a rate of 5 % per annum to reach a total of 20 animals. Although one unsuccessful exchange between the two parks has been done, five unrelated individuals from both parks have been used to establish a third population in the Karoo National Park in the last two years (Fig. 2). The incorporation of the later park makes the possibility of increasing the maximum founder population (MFP) for the three parks to about 20 animals, thus maximizing their reproductive potential.
There are essentially two basic approaches to conserving rhinos, and that is either in 'large' or 'small' conservation areas as described below: A. The large conservation area (generally > 1 000 km? ) This could be either an open or fenced area of land in which the natural patterns of distribution and movement of rhino occur freely (or nearly so). The presence of rhinos grants the area no special conservation status over and above what its original designation. By virtue of the area's size, usually less intense security is provided. This is typical of large conservation areas such as Kruger or Etosha National Parks. B. The smaller conservation areas (generally < 1000 km? ) can be subdivided depending whether they are fenced-off, and the degree of protection provided: a. Intensive Protection Zones (IPZs): A selected, smaller (up to ca 1000 km? ), unrestricted area (ie. no fences), within a larger conservation area in which the rhino have either been introduced or occur naturally. The area is provided with intense security measures. The selection of IPZs normally optimizes habitat suitability and potential stocking rates of rhinos. A number of IPZs have been established within Zimbabwe conservation areas. b. Rhino or Game Sanctuary: A relatively small (generally < 500 km? ), enclosed, and well protected area of land. It is often designed specifically for rhino protection, with Kenya offering some of the typical examples. However, smaller parks and game reserves, such as the the Addo Elephant National Park or Hiuhluwe-Umfolozi Game Reserve complex could also fall in this category, although they only conserve remnants of a much larger ecosystem. c. Rhino Conservancy: A relatively large fenced off area of land (up to ce 1000 km'), generally encompassing a number of private properties. Security is normally provided by the landowners. The Save and Bubiana Conservancies in Zimbabwe are good examples.
Diceros bicornis in Addo NP. Monitoring the reproductive history and to some degree behaviour of all individuals since their introduction has given valuable insights into the management of rhinos in small parks. This has been incorporated into present management practices such as the policy of not introducing new animals into established home ranges, rather creating vacant areas within the sanctuary through fencing or purchasing surrounding land and later dropping the fences once the newcomers are established.
Definition of Intensive Protection Zone. B. The smaller conservation areas (generally < 1000 km? ) can be subdivided depending whether they are fenced-off, and the degree of protection provided: a. Intensive Protection Zones (IPZs): A selected, smaller (up to ca 1000 km? ), unrestricted area (ie. no fences), within a larger conservation area in which the rhino have either been introduced or occur naturally. The area is provided with intense security measures. The selection of IPZs normally optimizes habitat suitability and potential stocking rates of rhinos. A number of IPZs have been established within Zimbabwe conservation areas.
