Kenya's total population of about 440 black rhinos is fragmented into more than 15 sub-populations, none numbering more than 70 animals.
for period 1984-1995 No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 21 No. of calves that survived: 12 No. of founders that died: 1 No. surviving founders in 1995: 19 Total population in 1995: 31
1948, reserve established, 150 km?
Without intensive management involving the continuous monitoring of population size and structure, and the periodic introduction and exchange of unrelated rhinos, most or all of the these populations are not viable in the long term. The recommendations of a Population and Habitat Viability Analysis provided the basis for the adoption of 20 rhinos as the minimum number of founders of new populations, the managed migration of one or two unrelated rhinos between populations per generation, and a short-term translocation programme to complete the minimum stocking of existing sanctuaries by the end of 1994. Translocation was originally used in Kenya largely for the removal or rescue of individual rhinos from non-viable locations for subsequent introduction into protected areas. Over 100 black rhinos were translocated to reserves in Kenya between 1959 and 1984, all animals which had been captured in areas vulnerable to poaching and/or being occupied by human settlement. More than half of these rhinos were used to stock two small reserves (Nairobi National Park (114 km? ) and Solio ranch (56 km? ) with rhinos between 1963 and 1980. These populations prospered, and after 1986 each had substantial surplus numbers available for subsequent translocation and progressive stocking of newly developed sanctuaries, for which each had been such successful models. The Nairobi and Solio populations have now produced three and five times their respective founder populations (Table 1). Consequently, since 1984, most rhinos translocated have originated from these sanctuaries. Increasingly, the management of remaining wild populations for improved population performance is now based upon translocation between protected areas (KWS, 1993). The Kenya rhino programme has shown some success: between 1986 and 1990 rhino numbers in sanctuaries increased at approximately 5% annually.
for period 1984-1995 No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 2 No. of calves that survived: 0 No. of founders that died: 1 No. surviving founders in 1995: 1 Total population in 1995: 58
for period 1993-1995, in Intensive Protection Zone No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 20 No. of calves that survived: 0 No. of founders that died: 1 No. surviving founders in 1995: 19 Total population in 1995: 19
for period 1984-1995 No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 4 No. of calves that survived: 0 No. of founders that died: 2 No. surviving founders in 1995: 2 Total population in 1995: 13
for period 1984-1995 No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 20 No. of calves that survived: 3 No. of founders that died: 5 No. surviving founders in 1995: 15 Total population in 1995: 18
Reserve stocked between 1963 and 1980 with 37 animals. Until 1995 a total of 26 rhinos were translocated out of the reserve. Total in 1995: 64
Private reserve, 20 km? in 1983, 40 km? in 1987, 213 km? in 1994
1983, Reserve started, private
for period 1984-1995 No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 25 No. of calves that survived: 8 No. of founders that died: 8 No. surviving founders in 1995: 13 Total population in 1995: 21
Release in Kenya 1984-1995. The black rhino's vulnerability to falling over cliffs and getting stuck in waterholes was always a feature of former, very large wild populations. For exarnple, after poaching, these were the major mortality factors in over 700 rhino mortalities recorded by Tsavo East NP wardens D.L.W Sheldnck and FW Woodley between 1949 and 1974 (KNP, 1949-74). A further two cliff deaths occurred on Lewa Downs in 1995, involving the calf and grand-calf of one of the first adult females translocated from Solio in 1984.
Area of 56 km?
Reserve stocked between 1970 and 1980 with 22 animals. Until 1995 a total of 61 rhinos were translocated out of the reserve. Total in 1995: 50
for period 1984-1995 in Ngulia Rhino Reserve, an Intensive Protection Zone No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 22 No. of calves that survived: 13 No. of founders that died: 3 No. surviving founders in 1995: 19 Total population in 1995: 32
for period 1984-1995 No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 2 No. of calves that survived: 0 No. of founders that died: 0 No. surviving founders in 1995: 0 Total population in 1995: 67
for period 1984-1995, in a rhino reserve started 1988 No. of rhinos translocated into reserve: 2 No. of calves that survived: 0 No. of founders that died: 2 Total population in 1995: 0
Translocated rhinos, Kenya 1984-1995. Overall there was no bias in the sex ratio of calves born to translocated rhinos (22 males, 21 females, 1 unsexed). However, sex ratios of calves born in particular sanctuaries did show a marked, but not consistent bias. For example, male calves exceeded female calves by approximately 2:1 in the Ngulia and Lake Nakuru sanctuaries (6:3 and 9:5 respectively) but the reverse was found for calves born at Lewa Downs (4 males: 8 females).
The recommendations of a Population and Habitat Viability Analysis provided the basis for the adoption of 20 rhinos as the minimum number of founders of new populations, the managed migration of one or two unrelated rhinos between populations per generation
Translocation in Kenya, 1984-1995. Adult females (including animals pregnant at translocation) took an average of 3.4 ? 2.2 years to produce their first calves in the new reserve (n=21), with non- pregnant animals calving 4.6 ? 2.1 years on average after translocation (n= 13).
Analysis of 121 black rhino, Kenya, 1984-1995. Performance of recipient populations The total sample of translocated rhinos had increased by 11.7 % at the end of the 12-year study period, equivalent to a 4.1 % increase per year following translocation. At the end of 1995, there were 88 survivors (79%) out of the original 111 rhinos introduced to new reserves. Breeding performance was highly variable, with only two populations (Lake Nakuru and Ngulia) showing significant population growth (41% and 45% respectively), while two reserves (Lewa Downs and Ol Pejeta) have had significant mortality, equalling or exceeding the numberof calves born. The Tsavo East IPZ has had insufficient time since minimum stocking to show appreciable population growth, and the founder stock has sine been doubled by further translocations of surplus rhinos from Nairobi NP since 1995.
Release in Kenya 1984-1995. Intraspecific fighting of translocated rhinos in the first two years after introduction to new reserves in Kenya was the major mortality factor affecting all sex and age groups. High levels of fighting mortality in translocated populations have also been recorded in southern African populations since 1989, accounting for 41 % of natural deaths. Overall mortality of translocated rhinos has been similar (24% of 148 translocated rhinos, vs.. 21% for Kenya: 1984-95). Intraspecific fighting is clearly a major problem facing rhino managers in translocating animals to form new populations, and in particular, in introducing rhinos to established populations. This factor clearly needs to be reduced in order to promote the rapid growth of translocated populations.
Release in Kenya after translocation, 1984-1995. The black rhino's vulnerability to falling over cliffs and getting stuck in waterholes was always a feature of former, very large wild populations. For exarnple, after poaching, these were the major mortality factors in over 700 rhino mortalities recorded by Tsavo East NP wardens D.L.W Sheldnck and FW Woodley between 1949 and 1974 (KNP, 1949-74).
